3G

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in 3G, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your 3G paper at affordable prices!Every century has it own leading industry in the society to represent the success of human beings and the improvement of living standard. With the improvement of technology, it has placed as a significant aspect in the business development for many years. Recently, there is a emergent G spectrum for mobile phone industry rollout in the market which greatly draws the attention to the entrepreneurs. By investigating how G technology involved in societies and daily life, it is clear that future businesses would appear in a different picture. When the technology is widely established in the future, there will be new ways of business operation and new approach of defining business. ¡¥Mobile¡¦ phone would not only be a calling device using wirelessly, it is predictable that people will be entering into an era of truly ¡¥mobile¡¦ in all sort of products and services. It is the time for entrepreneurs to expand and shape what definition of business will be in the future.

The rise of the emergent entrepreneurial issues

Businesses do not exist in a vacuum; they survive due to the fact that they are on behalf of the important part in the society. Over the period from the past to modern societies, entrepreneurs are finding new ways of doing business in order to cope with the changing world. Thus, every century has its unique new industries in correspond to appear as a sign of that period. People have been living in a world of revelation for many decades, especially in the 1 century where they are becoming more educated and more powerful in inventing new technologies; unpredictable incidents happen everyday which affect people in the way of doing or implementing things. The influence of uncertainty has lead to a quicker response in adoption of new technologies, in other words, entrepreneurs are skillful enough to plan strategy by working with alternative future contexts. According to an interview by Hanley to Schwartz from AFR BOSS magazine, he points out that ¡§we are living in a moment of big surprises¡K yet we pretend we live in a world of continuity; personally, politically, organizationally, we make plans for more of the same.¡¨ (00) The macro issues of changing political environment, social cultural impact, new inventions, trade restrictions to the micro environment of the changing living pattern of people, living standard or the altering consumer behaviour; all of the above impact the approach of how future businesses will be and they are interrelated. There are new types of businesses initiated due to the changing of world living pattern. What industries areas are developing nowadays in coping with the forces and what impacts will they carry out which causing entrepreneurship to adopt new methods of working is the main focus to discuss and investigate, which are the emergent entrepreneurial issues.

Developments of mobile industries

The emergence of internet and the dotcom bust in the 1th and the 0th century that creates lots of business opportunities and brings out new form of businesses operation like online shops, banking and efficient data transfer. It seems that technology has reached to maturity which has already generated a series of impact and benefits towards human societies in the last twenty years, however, it has not finished yet. According to Hanley (00), many technology companies felt that the technology boom would continue indefinitely and made forecasts accordingly. The development of technology is something that is hard to predict, it is difficult imagine how the society will look and who will become the entrepreneur in the technology industry. Take mobile phones as an example, G (the second generation), which is the spectrum most of the people are using nowadays, it supports voice service, SMS messages, WAP internet service and some of the handset in recent years has a little camera attached on it. The development of the G mobile has accomplished to a mature stage that besides the core service of making calls, companies needs to add value in the product by providing additional service such as lowering call rates, offering entertainment information SMS or supplying operator service for directory seeking in order to gain more market share. Yet, the development of mobile industry has not stopped. ¡§You need to ask yourself what people will be doing with their mobiles, or what will be doing with these devices in three to five years¡¦ time.¡¨ (Washington 00) Mobile phones in definition, at first are used for communication wirelessly when people are travelling, today or in the near future, mobile phone would be converging with the internet to create a new era of mobile. It is an emergent technology of G (third generation), which has already started in May this year in Australia by Hutchison that identify as a big jump compare to nowadays G mobile service. Before analyzing the importance of G in the society and how entrepreneurs make use of the new business opportunities, it is important to have a brief outlook of what G is.

Original G network enable users to transfer voice or simple txt messages, though, the new G service enhance users to transfer large amount of information on a high speed which faster than the broadband nowadays. Today¡¦s mobile networks were originally designed for voice traffic. In order to transfer large files quickly and cost efficiently, advanced interface network capabilities are needed. (G newsroom 00) The major difference between G and G is the speed, the new spectrum turn mobile service from voice oriented to data oriented like what people achieve through the internet on the computer. The speed of G acts as an emergent device with the combination of the mobile phone, internet, computer and TV in the speed of 144kb/sec to mb/sec when the network is fully developed. ¡§G services will add an invaluable mobile dimension to services that are already becoming an integral part of modern business life Internet and Intranet access, video-conferencing, and interactive application sharing.¡¨ (G newsroom, 00) The evolving of G doesn¡¦t means that there will be a faster mobile phone connection to the world wide web, rather, it is a whole new form of communication, new way of data transfer and access information which act as a transformation of the way to conduct business. The emergence of G climate is not just occurring in Australia, it is a global rollout and a huge investment by the entrepreneurs. Moreover, it draws the attention of all the mobile service company and the technology providers around the world in order to participate in this wireless battle. New forms of business or new approaches to defining their business would take place with the influence of the third generation mobile service. Critiques have also appeared in newspapers to investigate the how G would impact in business and the way of living. It is a revolution in the 1 century.

The wireless battle

According to the Sydney Morning Herald dated //00, ¡§less than 5% of Australian subscribers will be on G networks by 005, but penetration will steadily increase to 75% by 010, when 15 million mobile phone users are expected to be spending $1 billion a year.¡¨ Since G mobile is anticipated to be another controversial high stakes in the world, before observe the impact on G to future business, entrepreneurs of the mobile company has already started a battle in coping with this future trend. Hutchison Australia, a start-up phone company launched in 000 from Hong Kong, has spent billion to the end of 00 in building the G network. It estimated that there will be another billion spending in Australia in this project. (Washington 00) Apart from the huge investment in Australia, it has already begun a global invasion in many European countries and other parts of the world. Looking at the existing mobile phone service provider, Telstra, Vodafone, Optus; in contrast, contending with the global rollout of Hutchison, they aim at doing their best in extending the business life of G mobile. With the secure customer base for the three companies, they got the license of G service, but they prolong the project and waiting for the right time to enter when Hutchison is dry on their capital. Washington 00, points out that other mobile services companies modify their business plan to keep customer by satisfying the incremental demand from the customer for additional services. In the other angle, Hutchison, who clearly have a different view, they don¡¦t have customer base. They are coming out to sell the future in the market by attracting and getting customer, it has to be on the front foot in G and leverage it to the max. (Washington 00) On the other hand, Telstra, Vodafone and Optus are maintaining customers as their prevailing approach in this competition by blurring the edge of stepping into G technology to keep their territories. While mobile phone entrepreneurs are attacking each other in using their talent strategies with capital weapons in order to set up and conquer the wireless empire, other entrepreneurs around the field are also monitoring business opportunities to step into the market. The G technology impact on a lot of areas in the society which leads to the new business type development and the new way of working in the near future. Below is the analysis of the sequence of effects in the persuasion under G technology in the society especially in business areas.

New forms of business and opportunities

Companies outside telecoms today will take advantage of G to develop innovative new services. Pictures only happened in the science fiction movies where people can see who they are talking to in the real time would happen in the future. Moreover, people can watch the news like they would on the television using the handy machine when waiting for a bus or sitting on the train. People can email your phone or you can get video messages. The emergent of G would allow services not possible before. From the position of the customer, these benefits are really sound in providing better services anytime in anywhere. In spite of the convenience that everyone could notice, as an entrepreneur, it is needed to think behind the episode to search for opportunities and think beyond to prepare for the future. ¡§G is not an event, where you just make an announcement and suddenly you have got it, it is a continuum.¡¨ (Trinca, 00) When the G technology is developing, there will be more related business arise in order to be complemented with integration. Businesses are becoming more specialized than the influenced of internet in the future. Since G technology allows users to obtain or download trial movies, clips of the sporting events or other entertainment, it is predictable that there will be more information provider specialize in supplying news, sporting results or similar data through the spectrum. ¡§Five years ago data services accounted for only 1% of carriers¡¦ revenue, in 00, it accounted for 7.5%¡¨ (Nicholas, 00). In the upcoming years, corporate is expecting new revenues from data rather than just voice calls. Moreover, the rapid speed of G make a great distinction in the shopping culture compare to the existing internet. One of the problems of online shopping is the lack of real feeling of the product and actual contact or interaction with human beings. Shopping through G mobile phone would definitely solve the problems. Imagine an immediate video conferencing with the planter standing in the tulip farm in Holland to introduce his new species and allow you to pick the flowers you like; which is hard to do on the internet and never fulfill unless you travel miles to the place. Hence, there will be more wireless store and entrepreneurs will be thinking of different ways to attract customer through the G innovation. Besides, Higgins from the Sydney Morning Herald also supports that most workplaces will eventually go wireless with G providing an outdoor link between portable computers and the office network (00). This eventually conveys a new approach of doing business. There is lots of space in emerging G industries directly or indirectly, it require entrepreneurs watch closely to the market with creative ideas.

Impact on the existing businesses

According to the AFR, report from the Allen Consulting Group commissioned by the Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association which confirmed that just over 1 months ago, the number of mobile phones in Australia outstripped the number of fixed lines. (00) Thinking back to 5-7 years ago when mobile phones were not popular like nowadays, holding a mobile phone seems to be a sign of status especially to modern business people in the busy society. Today, mobile phones would not be an add-on, it is becoming a fundamental aspect for people in everyday life. With the competition from different mobile phone service provider, usage charge for G would ultimately be decreased to a range at the widely accepted level. Traditional fixed line services are predicted gradually be occupied by mobile service. Moreover, the impact on the internet forced businesses to present online in competing with each other. Nevertheless, there are still some companies choose to keep their operation method in avoiding to attend the cyberspace. Due to the fact that the implementing of G spectrum will be far more acknowledged than the internet, it will construct more innovative method of doing businesses. Physical companies would no longer be able to afford not to exist on the net since more and more businesses would be opened in the marketspace. Optimistic scenario has even made by Wallace 00 from the AFR BOSS that it would be possible for mobile internet overtaking the traditional internet. Banking services or other financial services will be engage in a new approach of business. There will be a great saving in transactional cost and operating cost with less or even no physical store required since face to face discussion could be done via video talk. The integration of G technology spin the wheels for the entrepreneurs to develop e-business, or even across the ¡§e¡¨ boundary to the ¡§m¡¨ stage, which are the mobile business and m-commerce.

Besides examining the technology aspects which affect future method to obtain money, it is also significant to inspect on the consequence of the future labour force. Given that there will be a growing need for mobile users to interact with machines, and for machines to interact with other machines, ¡V reporting faults, ordering new stock, or relaying location details whenever required. ( Hutchison Australia, 00) It may impose to a crisis that the future need of human labour force will eventually decrease due to the diminishing require on human power. On the other hand, labour force may obviously be separated into two areas, most of the people will be either working on the technology related field or the logistic related industries. The evolution of G extends the importance of logistics industries, which is a new term appeared in recent years. Logistic management will be more important than nowadays to the entrepreneurs since advanced logistic flow from the starting point to the end user is the main competitive edge of the company. In addition, starting from the invention of the internet, people entered into the information age. With the help of G industries, the information or the knowledge era will push to another peak of maturity stage. Intellectual capital, the term that lots of entrepreneurs are learning and concern about in the information age, would be represented in a large part of the company¡¦s assets during the development of the G industries. The most powerful entrepreneur in the future will not be the one that holds substantial money capital, it will be the one with most intellectual capital in their company. Though intellectual capital and logistics industries are areas that future businesses should pay attention to, which are another story to talk about, thus, it would not be investigate as the major issues in this paper. The idea needed to be stated is that besides mobile phone service provider, logistic delivery and intellectual capital are two other emergent areas with massive potential that entrepreneurs should concern about.

With the global rollout of G mobile, it is anticipated to be another trend in communication and transmitting information. The forces do not happened in mobile industries alone, however, there will be sequence of change following with the new business in other type of industries. In dealing with the emergent technology in the market, entrepreneurs need to be more creative in capturing business opportunities and more aggressive in competing with others. In order to be a successful entrepreneur, faster outlook in preparing to obtain a place in the market is crucial, moreover, how to cope with the changing business pattern and how to face the impact lead onto is the challenge for entrepreneurs in the 1 century.

G newsroom (00). Introduction into G, Retrieved March 1, 00, from,

http//www.gnewsroom.com/html/about_g/intro_g.shtml

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Hutchison Australia .(00). for business, Hutchison Australia Pty Ltd, Retrieved 00, from, http//www.three.com.au/index.cfm?section=Explore&pid=451&pageid=451

Hanley, M. (00). Way to go, AFR BOSS, Retrieved October, 00, from,

http//www.afrboss.com.au/magarticle.asp?doc_id=454&rgid=&listed_months=0

Higgins, D. (00). What if nobody rings, Sydney Morning Herald, Retrieved March , 00, from, http//newsstore.f.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?page=1&sy=smh&kw=G+and+entrepreneur&pb=all_ffx&dt=selectRange&dr=years&so=relevance&st=nw&sf=text&sf=headline&rc=10&rm=00&sp=adv&clsPage=1&docID=SMH00R40G44IK1RU&cwv=true

Nicholas, K. (00, November ). A new call on the mobile phone, Australian Financial Review, p.5.

Nicholas, K. (00, November ). Beware of phoney charges, Australian Financial Review, p.5.

Trinca, H. (00). Working on the future, Australian Financial Review, Retrieved October 11, 00, from,

http//newsstore.f.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?page=1&sy=smh&kw=G+and+entrepreneur&pb=all_ffx&dt=selectRange&dr=years&so=relevance&st=nw&sf=text&sf=headline&rc=10&rm=00&sp=adv&clsPage=1&docID=FIN01011C6B7I6P0DUI&cwv=true

Wallace, T. (00). Beyond Mobile, AFR BOSS, Retrieved November, 00, from,

http//www.afrboss.com.au/magarticle.asp?doc_id=0014&listed_month=15 (11/00)

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Kenilworth castle essay on Ivan Lapper's interpretation

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History How accurate an interpretation is Ivan Lapper's interpretation of Kenilworth Castle at the beginning of the 1th Century In this essay, I am going to examine Ivan Lapper's interpretation, which he drew in 186, and see if it is an accurate and reliable interpretation of Kenilworth castle in the thirteenth century. I am going to do this by examining written and pictorial sources about Kenilworth and other castles in general, and see if they help me answer the question. I am also going to be looking at the sources and seeing if they are reliable or not and why. I will then consider all of the facts and make a judgement about how accurate an interpretation Ivan Lapper's picture of Kenilworth is.The Keep

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Ivan Lappers interpretation ok Kenilworth Castle in the 1th Century shows that the keep was a stone square keep, it had narrow arrow slit windows, and there were crenulations. It also shows that the walls had a plinth and that there were four square, one in each corner. This is because this is only how far castle building had got to. The keep was made from wood at first, but then people realised that it was easily destroyed by fire, whereas stone cannot catch fire. Another thing that it shows is that the keep is on a Mott. Also we can see the entrance to the outer building but not the entrance to the keep. When I went on a site visit to Kenilworth, I saw some evidence, which supports Ivan Lapper. This was that the keep was made out of stone and was square, and that there were four towers. Another thing I saw which backs up Ivan Lappers interpretation, was that it had some narrow arrow slit windows, and that the walls had plinths. Another thing is that the keep was made out of sandstone. However there were some things that did not agree with Ivan Lapper's interpretation. These were that the entrance to the outer building to the keep was on the ground floor, because it was added at a later date. Also, most of the windows were big and were also added after the 1th Century. This is because when the purpose of castles changed, so did the windows, for example, when gunpowder was invented, castles could have easily been blown up, so windows weren't made for defence purposes any more. Another thing that disagreed with Ivan Lapper's interpretation was that the crenulations were not there, which was probably because they had fallen down. Also, the north of the keep was missing. This was because it was destroyed at the end of the English Civil War. Also, the real entrance to the keep, not the one that was added later on the ground floor, is on the first floor. I could see this because the outhouse was gone, which was another thing that disagreed with the interpretation, and the entrance was up there to make it hard to get in when attacking. I am going to look at all of the sources that tell me about the keep. I am going to go through each source and see if it agrees with or disagrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation.Source Source is a drawing by Sir William Dugdale, drawn in 1656. This source shows me that the keep was square. This source agrees with Ivan Lapper, and also agrees with my site visit, because when I saw the keep, it was square. I can trust this source because it was drawn in 1656, which means it is quite reliable as it was drawn when the castle wasn't a ruin. Also, there is no reason for the author to lie, and the plan has a scale, which suggests that the author has gone all around the castle and measured everything.Source Source is a plan of Kenilworth castle, which was drawn for a teacher's guidebook, published by English Heritage. This source shows me that the keep is square and has four, square, towers. This source is a secondary source, but I think that it's still reliable. This is because it is drawn for a teacher's guidebook, which means that the author had no reason to lie. Also, the plan shows how Kenilworth developed over time, in centuries, so I can just look at the time period I like which is very useful.Source 4 Source 4 is a twelfth century account of the castle of Merchen in Flanders. This source tells me that the top of the moat was surrounded by a wall of logs, and just inside this wall was a keep, which was only accessible via the causeway. This source is not very useful to me, as it describes a different castle to Kenilworth. However, it does give me an idea about how Kenilworth looked during that time period, because most castles during that time period were the same, because castle building hadn't advanced much, so they were normally just the same. This source agrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, because it shows that there is a curtain wall, a causeway and a keep in castles during that time period. I can trust this source because it was wrote in the early twelfth century. This means it is primary, and the author probably has no reason to lie.Source 5 Source 5 is an extract from the book "The Archaeology of Medieval England," by Helen Clarke, 186. This source mainly tells me about the keep in the twelfth century. It tells me that stone keeps that had a plinth, replaced wooden keeps, and had small narrow arrow slit windows. This source is very useful because it tells me about the outside of the keep, which is all that I can see from Ivan Lapper's interpretation. This source agrees with Ivan Lapper, because they both say that the keep was made of stone, had a plinth, and had narrow arrow slit windows. However, this source is a secondary source, but it was wrote for information purposes, and is an extract from her book. This means that if she lied hardly anybody would buy her book, so I think that it can be trusted. Also, it agrees with my site visit, as the keep was stone, had a plinth, and had narrow arrow slit windows.Source 6 Source 6, again, is an extract from "The Archaeology of Medieval England," by Helen Clarke, 186. This source doesn't tell me much. All it tells me is that keeps weren't being made defensively anymore, and started to be made more offensively. This probably means that they were being up-graded and probably had battlements, so that the defenders could pour things down onto the attackers. This source doesn't really agree with or disagree with Ivan Lapper. This is because it just tells me that keeps were started to be made more offensively and doesn't really tell me anything else. This source, again, is secondary, but is an extract from a book, and the author has no reason to lie. This is because if she did then not many copies of her book would be sold.Source 8 Source 8 is an extract from the book " Great Medieval Castles of Britain," by James Ford-Johnston, 17. This source tells me that in the early twelfth century, 'the timber works were eventually replaced by stone buildings.' It also tells me that Kenilworth castle is a keep and bailey castle. This source is quite useful, because it tells me that Kenilworth castle was made out of stone, which agrees with my Ivan Lapper's interpretation, and my site visit. The Moat and Mere Ivan Lapper's interpretation shows that the mere is at the bottom of the picture, and the moat goes all the way around the castle and joins the mere at the bottom. The moat would have stopped siege machines, and would also have slowed down infantry. The mere would have stopped most attacks on that side of the castle, but would also let ships attack. However, when I went on the site visit to Kenilworth, the moat wasn't there anymore. This is because the middle of the causeway had been blown out at the end of the English Civil War and that let all of the water drain away. Also, the mere had gone. This was also due to the demolition of the middle part of the causeway. I am now going to look at all of the sources that tell me about the moat. I am going to see whether or not the sources agree with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, and also if they are useful to me.Source Source is a plan of the castle drawn by Sir William Dugdale, 1656. This source shows me that the moat goes all the way round the castle it also shows that part of the moat is as big as a lake, the mere, and it is joined on to the other part of the moat. This source agrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, and with my knowledge of castles, as I know that a lot of castles had moats to stop enemies getting close to the castle and also to stop siege machinery from reaching the keep or curtain wall. However, it disagrees with my site visit. This is because when I went on my site visit, the moat and the mere had drained away. This source is quite useful as it shows the moat and mere exactly where Ivan Lapper has put it in his interpretation. It is also a very reliable source. This is because Sir William has put a scale on his plan, which means that he probably went all the way round the castle, measured everything, and took care of his plan while he was drawing it.Source Source is a plan of Kenilworth castle, which was drawn for a teacher's guidebook. This source tells me that the moat went all the way round the castle, and at one point, turned into a 'lake'. This source agrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, because the moat is at exactly the same place as it is in the source. This source, however, was drawn a long time after the time period I am looking at, and it is fairly modern. However, this source was drawn for a teacher's guidebook, which was published by English Heritage, and therefore the author has no reason to lie. This means that this source is pretty reliable.Source 7 This source is a piece of writing about the siege of Kenilworth castle, written by a contemporary historian in 17. This source tells me that there was a great lake to the south side of the castle. It is also mentioned as the 'Great Mere'. This source agrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, as it says that there was a great lake called the mere, just like in Ivan Lapper's interpretation. However, this does not agree with my site visit, because when I went to Kenilworth, the great lake and the moat had both drained away. However, this source is a primary source as it was wrote near the time period that I am looking at, but the author may have exaggerated, depending on what side they were on during the war. Source 8 Source 8 is an extract from the book "Great Medieval Castles of Britain" by James Forde-Johnston, 17. This source says 'around this first stone castle was a moat. Probably an enlarged version of the one surrounding the original timber-built castle.' This source agrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, because in one part it, the moat is widened. Also, this agrees with my knowledge of castle development. I know that when castles were upgraded from timber to stone, the moats were usually widened. This source however is secondary, and was written in 17. This should make it not very reliable, but a modern historian, who should know all about castles, wrote this source and it is part of his book. This means that if the author lied, then not many copies of his book would be sold, so therefore, he has no reason to lie.Source Source is another extract from "Great Medieval Castles of Britain" by James Forde-Johnston, 17. This source tells me that the moat was about three quarters of a mile long and about a quarter of a mile wide. It also tells me that the part of the moat that goes around the rest of the castle is a double thick moat. This source is quite useful to me as it tells me the length and width of the castle. It is also very reliable, because it agrees with my knowledge of castles and agrees with Ivan Lapper's interpretation. The Causeway The causeway is the main entrance to the castle. In Ivan Lapper's interpretation, it is only partially visible. However. I know that most castles in the thirteenth century had a causeway. The causeway was also used as a line of defence for the castle. On my site visit, I discovered that the causeway was about 100metres long, made out of stone, and had two gatehouses at the end of it. This is because this is only how far castle building had advanced to. Causeways were built to give the defenders of the castles a big advantage. This is because it is a long open strip and it would take an army quite a while to get to the end. This means that it gives the defenders more time to get ready. Also, if it was enclosed at both sides, archers could be in or on the walls and they could shoot attackers before they could reach the keep. Causeways ere normally made of stone so it couldn't be burnt. However, some castles didn't have causeways, so you could argue that they were less defensive than the castles with them as it gives an extra line of defence. I will now examine all of the sources that tell me about the causeway, and see if they agree with or disagree with Ivan Lapper's interpretation, and if they are useful or not and why.Source Source is a plan of Kenilworth castle drawn in 1656 by Sir William Dugdale. This source clearly shows the causeway in the bottom right hand side of the plan. This source is very helpful to me as it shows me exactly where the causeway is. It also agrees with my site visit. It is also a very reliable source. This is because it was drawn in 1656, and it even has a scale on, which suggests that sir William had gone all the way around the castle and measured everything and took great care over drawing his plan.Source Source is a plan of Kenilworth castle drawn for a teacher's guidebook, published by English Heritage. This source tells me that the causeway was added to the castle in the thirteenth century, and is in the bottom right hand side of the source, which agrees with my site visit and source . This source is quite useful to me as it shows me exactly where the causeway is. This source is also very reliable, as it agrees with my site visit and source . Also, the author has no reason to lie. This source disagrees with Ivan Lapper, because in Ivan Lapper's picture, the causeway is only partially visible.Source 4 Source 4 is an early twelfth century account of the castle of Merchan in Flanders. This source tells me that when the first castles were built, the only entrance to the Mott was via the causeway. This source is not very helpful to me as it is of a twelfth century castle, that is not Kenilworth, and the castle wasn't even in England. However, most castles in that time period were similar and it shows that causeways were common. This agrees with my knowledge of castles, because I know that early castles did have a causeway on them. This source is also very reliable, as it was written in the twelfth century, and the author had mo reason to lie. Source Source is an extract from the book "Great Medieval Castles of Britain" which was written in 17. This source tells me that the causeway of Kenilworth castle was used to block the stream, which created the Great Lake. It also tells me that the causeway was in the southeast part of the castle. This source is useful to me because it tells me where the causeway is, which agrees with my site visit, but it also tells me that it was used to block the stream to create the Great Lake. This part however, does not agree with my site visit as the middle of the causeway was blown out at the end of the English Civil War, and the Great Lake drained away. This source is quite reliable. This is because it is a secondary source but was written by a modern historian. This means that the author has no reason t lie, because if he did lie, then he would not sell many copies of his book.The Curtain Wall Kenilworth castle, as shown in Ivan Lapper's picture, includes an inner curtain wall. Lapper painted Kenilworth as it would have been in the thirteenth century. Most thirteenth century castles have curtain walls, and these were used as a line of defence, which would help stop enemies entering the castle. They were originally made from wood and were called palisades, but they were easily burnt so they changed from wood to stone. Also, some castles had more than one curtain wall as an extra line of defence. The curtain wall is very thick. It would have been one of the first lines of defence, and would have help to stop siege machines. It would have been very high and would have had a wall walk for archers and lookouts to stand on. Buttresses supported it, and it had crenulations both of these made it easier to defend. All of the towers were there to help defend the castle as well, and these would have been even higher than the wall. The curtain wall had three towers. These were1. Swans Tower. Water Tower. Lunn's Tower These towers also had crenulations on and had narrow arrow slit windows. The towers also had walkways, and this helped archers to fire arrows a very long distance because of the height, and they would have been hard to hit because the crenulations would get in the way, and if they were by a window, then it would be hard to get an arrow through the narrow windows to hit them. However, on my site visit, I saw that the inner curtain wall had gone, and some of the crenulations had fallen off of he towers, but most of them were still there. Also, half of Swans Tower had fallen down. Apart from one of the sides, the outer curtain wall was still intact. I am now going to examine the sources that tell me about the curtain wall and see if they are useful to me in examining Ivan Lapper's interpretation, and how reliable they are and why. Source Source is a plan of Kenilworth castle, drawn by Sir William Dugdale in 1656. It shows me that the curtain wall went all around the castle, and that it had three towers on it. Swans Tower, Lunn's Tower, and the Water Tower. This is helpful to me because it tells me that there are three towers, and that the curtain wall did go all the way around the castle. This source, I think, is very reliable. This is because the author has no reason to lie, and the plan has a scale. This suggests that Sir William has been all the way round that castle and measured everything, but also taken a lot of time over drawing his plan to get the measurements right. It also agrees with my site visit, as there were three towers, and a curtain wall. The only part that doesn't was that one of the sides of the curtain wall was missing. Source Source is a plan of Kenilworth castle, which was published by English Heritage. This source shows me that the curtain wall did go all the way around the castle, and that there were three towers on it. These were Swans Tower, Lunn's Tower, and the Water Tower. It also tells me part of the outer curtain wall was demolished. This source is very useful to me as it tells me exactly where the curtain wall was and where the towers were. It also tells me that part of the wall was demolished which agrees totally with my site visit, which means it is quite reliable. Also, English Heritage published it, and they have no reason to lie, as there work is made for information purposes.Source 4 Source 4 is an early twelfth century account of the castle of Merchen in Flanders. This source tells me about an early built castle in Flanders and it says that the early castles were surrounded by a wall of logs, the curtain wall, and that towers were placed along it. This source isn't very useful to me as it tells me about a castle in the twelfth century, when I'm looking at Kenilworth in the thirteenth century, and it isn't even in England. However, my knowledge of castle development tells me that most castles were the same in that time period, and it suggests to me how Kenilworth would have looked in the twelfth century. This source is also very reliable. This is because it is a primary source written near the time of Ivan Lapper's Interpretation. Source 6 Source 6 is an extract from the book "Archaeology of Medieval England" by Helen Clarke, 186, this source tells me that early, wooden curtain walls were replaced by new stone ones in the early twelfth century. It also tells me that the curtain walls had towers on, and that square towers replaced circular ones. I know that thy made towers circular, to strengthen the weakness of right angles, and so that there is no blind spot when looking down. This source is very useful to me as it tells me about the development of curtain walls and towers on a castle, and it give me an idea of what Kenilworth would have looked like. This source is also very reliable. This is because a modern historian published it, so they would know all about castles, and it is also part of her book. This means that she had no reason to lie, because if she did then she would not sell many copies of her book. Source 8 Source 8 is an extract from the book "Great Medieval Castles of Britain" by James Forde-Johnston, 17. This source tells me that the old bailey of Kenilworth probably occupied the area now taken up by the inner bailey and the stone curtain wall. This source is quite useful to me as it tells me that the old bailey is now the inner bailey and the stone curtain wall which lets me see how Kenilworth developed from the time period that Lapper drawn his interpretation at, to round about the way it is today. This source is also very reliable. This is because a modern historian, who should know all about castles, wrote it and it is part of his book, so therefore, is he lied, not many copies of his book would sell. I conclude that Ivan Lapper's interpretation is quite a reliable source. This is because most of the picture is pretty accurate, but he misses out one key detail. This is the causeway. This is only partially visible in Ivan Lapper's interpretation, but it should be there. I know this because when I went on my site visit, I walked down it, and also, quite a few of the sources agree that it is there. Also, Ivan Lapper shows an inner curtain wall on his interpretation, but that has now fallen down. I know this because it wasn't there when I went on my site visit, and sources and show that there was once an inner curtain wall, but it has now either fallen down or has been demolished. However. It is still a pretty accurate interpretation of Kenilworth castle in the thirteenth century, which means that Ivan Lapper may have also looked at different sources to help him paint, his interpretation. A typical 1th century castle had a stone keep, one or two curtain walls, a moat and a causeway. Therefore, I think that Ivan Lapper's interpretation is quite a reliable source of a typical thirteenth century castle, Kenilworth. Please note that this sample paper on Kenilworth castle essay on Ivan Lapper's interpretation is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Kenilworth castle essay on Ivan Lapper's interpretation, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Kenilworth castle essay on Ivan Lapper's interpretation will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Rome

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I. SummaryThe Roman Empire was one of the largest in world history. A common saying All Roads Lead to Rome alludes to this central hub of technology, literature, and architecture. Rome became a great empire for many reasons great rulers, great armies, a suitable location, and notable achievements from visionary builders. The engineers of the Roman age created an amazing network of roads, built strong arched bridges, harnessed water power using aqueducts and created public baths complete with gardens and restaurants that would rival some water parks of today.The Romans built roads, aqueducts, and bridges so skillfully that some are still in use ,000 years after construction. Buildings based on Roman architecture stand today throughout the world. Students will examine the significant achievements of Roman roads, bridges, baths, and buildings as they research, organize their information, and then prepare and present their data in either a software presentation or in booklet form. Students will also have a chance to better understand Roman architecture by participating in two class experiments using the inquiry method 1. creating an aqueduct and . building a strong arch. Students will participate in a self-assessment of the project and their presentation will be graded from a rubric that will be shared with them before creating their presentation.

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I. I. SummaryRoman towns were noisy and crowded places in which to live. The empire included many different kinds of people. Within the empire, there lived barbaric Germanic tribesmen, Jewish scholars, wealthy and educated Greeks, farmers, and slaves. Students will be given the opportunity to virtually visit Ancient Rome at the time that it was the greatest Empire ever and experience different lifestyles. Students will become time travelers traveling back to Ancient Rome. Students will keep a diary of their travels, map their travels, and describe the people they have met. They will examine the money, work, clothing, food, housing, doctors, education, family life, entertainment, religion, military, government, language, bath time, and literature of the era. The languages of modern France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Romania are all descendants from Latin, the Romans language. From the time of learning to write the Romans needed a way to indicate numbers. The Ancient Romans didnt have special characters to stand for numbers; therefore, they used their letters to show numbers. Roman numerals are still utilized in specialized ways today. Students will take a look at Roman Numerals. Although Roman numerals are no longer an essential component of our modern mathematics, Roman numerals need to be considered important because they are a part of our cultural heritage. Students will explore Roman numerals, design a coin, discuss uses of math in Rome, and examine different mathematics systems throughout history.By the time the Roman Empire came to an end, Romes official religion was Christianity. However, throughout most of Romes long history, the people believed in many different gods, goddesses, and spirits. The Romans matched their Roman gods with the Greek ones, making them the basis of their state religion. They prayed and made sacrifices to gods for overall protection, and believed that each deity looked after a particular aspect of life. It was believed that if the gods were angered, they might take out their anger on the people below. People prayed to Venus for success in love and beauty, and to Mars for success in war. Jupiter was King of the gods and of thunder and lightening, and his wife and sister Juno was Goddess of women and childbirth. Mercury was Jupiters messenger and God of trade and thieves. Minerva was Goddess of wisdom, crafts, and war. Bacchus was God of wine, and Neptune was God of the sea. These gods and goddesses had special powers, but behaved as ordinary people they argued, got jealous, and even tried to trick each other.How did Romes religious beliefs affect our world? Students will participate in a detailed study of Roman mythology, and will research, write creatively, role-play, and improve their general knowledge base of mythology. Family StructureAt the head of Roman family life was the Paterfamilias the oldest living male in a family, who was absolute ruler of the household. By Roman law, a father wielded absolute control over his children. Those who displeased him could be disowned, sold into slavery, or even killed. He would perform certain religious rites on behalf of his family, and oversee the family business and property. Only the paterfamilias could own property in a family. His sons regardless of age would receive an allowance (peliculum) to use in maintaining their own households. The continuance of family names was extremely important, and families without sons could adopt one, often a nephew, so the family line would not die out. Judith Hallett Rome is definitely a patriarchal society. The operative political and legal unit was the family headed by the eldest man. But because the family was such an important unit and because family membership by blood meant so much, women were extraordinarily important within the Roman family. They could not vote. They could not hold office. They obviously were not involved in the same type of military exploits as men; but within the family circle, they were not only expected to transmit, but also to display the same qualities that would secure public prominence for their men folk. Fathers also had the right to decide whether to keep or expose their newborn babies. The midwife placed babies on the ground, and only when the paterfamilias picked it up was the baby formally accepted into the family. Exposure the deliberate abandonment of an infant to the elements was practiced on obviously deformed infants, or when the father felt the family could not support another child. While much has been made of this seemingly cruel Roman custom, it was assumed that these babies did not die, but were picked up and taken as slaves. Richard Saller With child exposure the first thing to do is make a distinction between exposure and infanticide. Romans who had babies that they couldnt support and didnt want to raise would have set them out in an appointed place where passersby could pick them up if they wanted to. Why did they do it? Well because they had no predictable form of birth control. Having the right size family has been a problem through the ages... For poor families the problem was matching their resources to the size of their family. And so the exposure of a newborn in some cases was a kind of calculated form of love for the rest of the familyA Roman mother with her child.The Mater familias was usually much younger than her husband. Roman women generally married in their early teens, but men waited until their mid-twenties. It was understood that the wife oversaw the management of the household, and in the higher classes was expected to behave modestly, move gracefully, and to conduct herself in a manner which would reflect well on her husband and family. An unwed Roman woman was either in patria potestas under the protection of her father or sui iuris independent. In Romes early years the wife, and her property, became in manus under the protection and rule of her husband upon marriage, but by the time of the empire the manus was obsolete, and a woman retained whatever status and property she had prior to marriage. Because so many children died at a young age sadly, 5 percent of babies in that era did not survive their first year, and perhaps half didnt live to age 10 there were legal rewards offered to women for successful childbearing. Under Augustus, women in patria potestas could enter into binding legal agreements without a male representative only after they had borne three live children (four for freedwomen). Marriage and Divorce LawsOnce the families had agreed upon the date of wedding and the financial terms, the marriage itself was a mere formality to prove the couples intention to live together their affectio maritalis. It was in fact not a binding legal agreement, but rather a personal agreement between the bride and groom. More formal divorce procedures were introduced during Augustus reign.Alfredo Foglia Despite that fact, there were specific laws that governed the institution of marriage. A true Roman marriage could not take place unless both bride and groom were Roman citizens, or had been granted conubium permission to enter into a Roman marriage. In early Rome, citizens had been forbidden to marry freedmen or freedwomen; Augustus lex Julia in 18-17 BC limited this restriction to Senators. Augustus also forbade the remarriage of an adultress, the marriage of a citizen to a prostitute or actress, intermarriage between a provincial official and a local woman, the marriage of soldiers in certain circumstances, and marriages within certain degrees of blood relationships. Judith Hallett Augustus moral and marriage legislation does not necessarily reflect any Puritanical agenda on his part. These laws were aimed at Romes wealthiest citizens and represent an effort to get these people to marry and to multiply so that their resources would be spread among several different heirs and they will not prove the kind of political threat that could over turn his power.Divorce Because marriage was not a binding legal agreement, but simply a declaration of intent to live together, Roman divorce was simply a declaration of intent not to live together. All that was required under Augustan law was a declaration before seven witnesses of the desire to divorce. Because of the ease of dissolution, divorce was common, at least among the upper echelons of Roman society. Upon divorce, the wife was entitled to the full return of her dowry, and returned to the patria potestas family protection of her father. If she had been independent of her father prior to marriage, she would regain her independence upon divorce. Roman law did not recognize adultery by husbands, but under Augustus lex Julia of 18 BC a wife found guilty of adultery in a special court known as the quaestio might forfeit the return of half her dowry. EmperorsSocial standing in the Roman Empire was based in part on heredity, property and wealth, Roman citizenship, and freedom. The specific class designations included Senators, Patricians, Equestrians, Plebeians, Slaves, Freedmen, and non-Roman citizens all of which were ruled by the Emperor. The boundaries between these classes were legally enforced, although it was possible to move up the social ladder as ones financial circumstances improved. During the Empire, entry into the higher classes could be gained upon acquisition of property and wealth, or at the pleasure of the Emperor in one famous incident, Caligula even raised a horse to Senatorial rank.Roman society was also defined by an established system of patronage, in which an upper class gentleman patroni offered protection to freedmen, or members of the lower class cliens. That protection might take the form of financial assistance, the provision of food, or legal help. Traditionally, any freed slaves became the cliens of their former owner.In return, the patroni received respect and political favors. During the Empire cliens were required to offer daily greetings to their patroni, and the number of these salutatores, or greeters, were noted in determining someones social status. Roman generals also served as patroni for the peoples they conquered, and various Roman provinces or cities would often seek out an influential Senator to act as patroni and oversee their interests in Rome.Clothing laws helped to distinguish the classes. For example, only the Emperor was allowed to wear a toga which was entirely purple. Senators were allowed to wear a white toga with the latus clavus a broad purple stripe along the edge, and Equestrian togas could sport a clavus augustus (narrow purple stripe). Emperors distributed free food to Romans to win their political support.The Emperor and his relatives lived in the best villas, had the finest foods, furnishings, and clothing, and lived a luxurious life of leisure, gossip, and indulgence. That lifestyle, however, often came at a high price. Succession to Emperor was not strictly hereditary, and required Senatorial approval. Those men (and the families behind them) who coveted the throne had to constantly jockey for position both within their own families, and within the many factions among the Senate and dabbled in intrigue, backstabbing, and even murder.Judith Hallett [This is] whats wrong with the system that Augustus established. Its a system thats only as strong as the male member of the family who comes to power is, emotionally and physically. And while there were some very impressive people, most notably Augustus, who assumed this role, there were others who had a great deal wrong with them. And a lot of what was wrong with them was merely living in this household where people were constantly vying for power and favor.PatriciansThe name Patrician comes from the Latin word patres, or fathers, and the Patricians were a privileged group of families that dominated the political, religious, and military leadership of the Empire. The majority were wealthy landowners from old Roman families, although the Emperor could raise anyone he chose to Patrician status. Patrician status was required for ascent to the throne, but otherwise the class had few privileges other than reduced military obligations, and the ability to serve in certain priesthoods.The education of a Patrician son would center on literature, poetry, mythology, history, geography, Greek, and, most importantly, public speaking. Older youth would continue on to study law, in preparation for a political or administrative career. SenatorsThe Senate in Imperial Rome consisted of 600 men, who were either sons of senators, or Roman citizens over the age of 5 with both military and administrative experience, who were elected to the quaestorship a low-ranking magistracy position. These potential candidates were nominated by the Emperor, and the elections were merely a formality. Once elected, a Senators career path through various magistracies including the quaestorship, the aedileship, the praetorship, and the consulship determined his Senatorial rank.Only a small percentage of Romans could afford to be involved in politics.The Emperor held the title of Princeps Senatus, and could appoint new Senators, convene and preside over the Senate, and propose legislation. Because the Imperial Senate took its direction from the Emperor, its real powers lay in its judicial functions, in its discussion of political and legislative matters, and in its ultimate right to confer the title of Emperor. Augustus instituted a property requirement for Senatorial status of 1,000,000 sesterces, and since Senators received no payment, only a small percentage of the population could afford to become deeply involved in politics. The lex Claudia (18 BC) also prevented Senators from engaging directly in commerce, especially shipping and government contracts, to avoid any possible conflict of interest while carrying out their Senatorial duties.In addition to their political power, Senators had special privileges in Roman society, including special seating at public ceremonies and games, the rights to hold the highest official offices and judgeships in criminal and civil courts, and the honor of wearing the latus clavus the purple striped toga.Both the Senate as a governing body, and social laws such as the lex Claudia, were political remnants of the earlier Roman Republic. One of Augustus great strengths as an Emperor was his ability to maintain the appearance of continuing these traditional Republican institutions, while actually establishing a Principate.PlebeiansBy the time of Augustus and the Empire, the term Plebeian referred to all free Roman citizens who were not members of the Patrician or Equestrian classes.Plebeians were low on the social scale. Their jobs were low on the social scale farmers, bakers, builders, and artisans but these anonymous people paid taxes, struggled to support their families, and, when problems arose, appealed to Roman administrators for relief. Those who were making ends meet might try to set enough money aside to meet the financial qualification to rise into the Equestrian class, but others lived on the edge of ruin.It is more difficult to imagine the daily life of the lower class, because they were not able to record and preserve their experiences as could their more privileged countrymen. The importance of archaeological finds like the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum is that they preserve the living spaces, shops, tools, and graffiti of the common people that would otherwise be lost to history.Ronald Mellor The poor of the ancient world dont speak to us. They dont leave their voices. The writings that come to us from antiquity are the writings of an elite. The art that comes is the art of an elite... But the poor in any city are going to have a very hard time making due. Theyre going to be working on a per day basis. And if there is rain and there is no work in construction they are going to be close to starvation.While the Plebeians had the least power in Rome, they had the greatest numbers, and there was always the risk of unrest, or uprising against the upper classes. It was to an Emperors benefit to keep the poor fed and happy by regulating food prices, and offering free public entertainment in other words, bread and circuses.Karl Galinsky One key constituency for Augustus was the Plebeian population of Rome and that is basically the city mob. You have several hundred thousand folks here who have no jobs and, to put it very simply, who need to be kept off the streets, and be kept from making trouble. Because its a very volatile, combustible mix thereSlaves and FreedmenSlavery was an abusive and degrading institution, with a long history in the ancient world. The majority of slaves during the Roman Empire were foreigners prisoners of war, sailors captured and sold by pirates, or slaves bought outside Roman territory. It was not uncommon, however, for impoverished Roman citizens to resort to selling their children into slavery. Keith Bradley Slavery was not based on race. In fact, it was what you could call an equal opportunity condition. Anyone was liable to become a slave at any time under certain sets of circumstances. And in fact the biggest difference between ancient forms of slavery and modern forms of slavery that we tend to be more familiar with is this absence of a sharp color contrast in the two systems.Roman frescoAlfredo FogliaRoman slaves merged so well into the population that the Senate once considered a plan to distinguish them by special dress. The idea was rejected, because of the number of slaves serving in private households, in mines and factories, on farms, and working for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts, and buildings. If slaves saw how numerous they were, the Senate decided, they might be emboldened to rebel. Slaves and their children were property of owners, and could be sold or rented at the owners discretion. Their lives were harsh they were often whipped, branded or cruelly mistreated, and their very lives depended on the whims of their owners. While Romans accepted slavery as the norm, there were those who cautioned that slaves should at least be treated fairlySeneca There is a proverb you have as many enemies as you have slaves. But in truth, we make them our enemies. We abuse them as if they were beasts of burden. When we recline for dinner, one wipes our spittle, another picks up the scraps and crumbs thrown down by drunkards. The point of my argument is this treat your inferior as you would like to be treated.But in Rome, slavery had a remarkable feature manumission. Roman owners freed their slaves in considerable numbers either freeing them outright, or by allowing slaves to purchase their freedom. The prospect of possible manumission encouraged slaves to be obedient and efficient.FreedmenFormal manumission performed and witnessed by a magistrate bestowed full Roman citizenship upon a freedman, with the exception that a freedman could not hold public office. Under the law, any children born to freedmen after their manumission were also given the full rights of Roman citizenship, including the right to hold office.Informal manumission did not grant the freedman Roman citizenship, and at his death any accumulated property reverted to his former owner. Former slaves could work as craftsmen, midwives, and merchants, and sometimes achieved wealth. But, in Romes status conscious world, even successful freedmen found the stigma of slavery hard to erase.Andrew Wallace-Hadrill For the slave, slavery was a necessary evil. And I dont suppose any slave ever thought well of the system of slavery. But it seems to me whats really important about the Roman system of slavery was that it gave every slave a chance to be free. And there must have been an enormous psychological pressure on every single slave that that little light somewhere at the end of the tunnel of the possibility of freedom that made them strive to escape from the evil condition in which they found themselves. Please note that this sample paper on Rome is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Rome, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Rome will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Dark Humor in Hamlet

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December 4, 00Shakespeare Final PaperDark Humor in Hamlet A distinguishing and frequently mystifying feature of William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet is the presence of dark humor constant wordplay, irony, riddles, clowning, and bawdy repartee. The language of Hamlet is cleverly and specifically designed in the guise of Shakespeare's dark humor. In regards to all uses of comedy and wit, the language of this play is meant to be pleasing to the audience but not to the characters. This concept is essential in understanding what place comedy has in a tragedy such as Hamlet. Hamlet's very use and style of language, especially the use of the pun, his dialogue with the minor character Polonius, and the realization of his destiny in graveyard scene reveal the comic relief that lies within this tragedy.

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But why have any comic relief at all in a tragedy? One possible answer lies in the timelessness of the human condition, in the idea that people of all time periods in history experience the same emotions. In the same way that movies and plays can be cathartic experiences for audiences today, Shakespeare's plays must have been cathartic for his Elizabethan audience, groundlings and aristocrates alike. The fact that Hamlet maintains a usage and sense of humor makes him more real and more identifiable with the audience; he isn't tragically one-dimensional. Humor is as much a part of the human condition as sadness; in times of grief, humor can be a saving grace. Hamlet's use of dark humor makes him more believable; he isn't just some royal brat who is upset that he has been further removed from the crown, but he actually cares about his family, specifically his father, and the wrong done to him. Therefore, for the audience, Hamlet's believability relies on his use of dark humor. The audience comes to share with Hamlet the knowledge that he is right, that he is justified. Considering that the audience also shares Hamlet's knowledge of the murder, his use of humor reminds the audience that his madness is just an act and that he in fact still has his wits. In my estimation, and for the purpose of this paper I aim to show how, the use of dark humor maintains our (the audience/reader) reliance in Hamlet as a justified and believable character through the play to his tragic end. The exchange of wit often relied heavily on the identity of the actors (Thomson 116). Shakespeare writes the plays for his audience in his time, so the audience would be familiar with the actors. Thus, there may have been some very pointed sarcasm thrown into the dialogue that seems very funny to the 17th century playgoer (depending on the real identity of the speaker), but appears mystifying to the modern viewer. The pun is the most frequent of Shakespeare's comic uses. Act one introduces the reader to Hamlet, who seems to be showing signs of strong angst towards his elders, but uses biting remarks to defend himself. Hamlet believes that humor (albeit sarcastic humor) suggests a nimble and flexible mind, as well as an imagination. Wittenberg is a pinnacle of wits, which is where, of course, Hamlet wants to return to (Watts 4). "A little more than kin, and less than kind" (1..65). Hamlet's first words in the play show him playing with words in order to state a paradox Claudius is twice related to him, as uncle and stepfather, but not really his kin or kind at all. Immediately thereafter, the king questions, "How is it that the clouds still hang on you?" (1..66) Hamlet responds with, "Not so, my lord, I am too much in the sun" (1..67). He means that the king has called Hamlet "son" too often (Fisch 0). "Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral baked meats / Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables"(1..180-81). Here Hamlet bitterly jokes that the real reason his mothers remarriage came so soon after her husbands death was so that she could save money by serving the leftover funeral refreshments to the wedding guests. Albeit caused by a joke, any human in the audience with a heart would sympathize with Hamlet given this information. In the last scene of act one, the reader meets Hamlet's last family member, his deceased father. Hamlet's feigned madness is concocted in his mind in this scene. This reflects the ability of his nimble mind to change characters very easy, which is significant later in the play. Shakespeare's extensive knowledge of differing meanings of the same words (Charney 46) is put to good use here. When Hamlet sees the ghost of his father, his friends try to stop him from following the apparition, and he cries out, "Unhand me, gentlemen / I'll make a ghost of him that lets me!" (1.4.84-5). In Elizabethan English, "lets" means "allows" AND "hinders" (Charney 51). Now the sentence has two different meanings. Hamlet's instinctive and unconscious punning here foreshadows Polonius' death by Hamlet; at the very least, it foreshadows the murder of someone by Hamlet. In addition, a third layer of meaning can be found in this sentence. The ambigiousness of this sentence mirrors Hamlet's own doubts (which come out later in the play) in believing the ghost; an action which yields another dimension, another incitement of believability for the audience. The comic world is frankly controlled and unified (Weitz 64), whereas the tragic world is one that has many possible routes and directions. Shakespeare often presents a love triangle of daughter, father, and prospective son-in-law (6). This can be a humorous triangle in a comedy (such as the one that results from Egeus, Hermia, and Lysander in A Midsummer Night's Dream), or a tragic one in a tragedy. This is a subplot of Hamlet, and the prince uses biting, often surprisingly humorous, puns when speaking with Polonius, the father of his would-be bride. In comedies, the choosing between father and husband is avoided. In tragedies, it is not (Bamber 11). The minor character Polonius proves to be a comic character in the way he uses his speech. Polonius over-elaborates the use of rhetoric (Nardo ), "since brevity is the soul of wit" (..7), to "more matter with less art" (..10). Everyone manipulates everyone else with punning and speechesPolonius thinks he, especially, is gifted. Through his dialogue with Polonious, the audience's view of Hamlet as justified and believable is multiplied. In Hamlet's conversation with Ophelia, he reveals a softer side of himself that makes him seem all the more tragic yet believable at the same time. He tells her he is "ill at these numbers" (..10). He is referring to the metrics of his poem, but Shakespeare might be subtly hinting at his growing dislike for aristocracy, reckoning of bills, and sums and money (Boyce 11). Would the groundlings have noticed this? In act two, Hamlet thrusts a number of bitter jests at Polonius. "Excellent well; you are a fishmonger" (..174), says Hamlet in response to Polonius' question, "Do you know me, my lord?" The basis of Hamlet's jests is apparently his intuition that Polonius forced Ophelia to stop seeing him. In Hamlet's opinion, Polonius sacrificed his daughter's happiness in order to impress the king. This, "fishmonger" is often explained as slang for "pimp" (Bamber 18), despite the fact that there is no evidence that the word was used that way before Shakespeare wrote this play. Hamlet then makes him insult sharper by wishing that Polonius were as honest as a fishmonger, which is to say that Polonius is lower than the lowest of the low. In consistently shutting down and pointing to the foolishness of the man who is the main voice in advocating Hamlet's madness, Hamlet increseas our view of him as maintaining his wits. Hamlet goes on to belittle Polonius some more. He says that "to be honest, as this world goes, is to be one man pick'd out of ten thousand" (..14), and then says what Polonius probably thinks is a very crazy thing "For if the sun breeds maggots in a dead / dog, being a god kissing carrionHave you a daughter?" (..17-) The comment about the sun and the maggots has at least two possible meanings. One meaning is that it is not surprising Polonius is such a hypocrite, because the life-giving sun can produce all kinds of disgusting things, especially from other disgusting things (Watts 56). The second meaning Hamlet explains, though not so Polonius can understand. When Polonius says that he does have a daughter, Hamlet replies, "Let her not walk i' the sun conception is a blessing but not as your daughter may conceive" (..184-85). In other words, if Polonius is going to keep Ophelia away from Hamlet for fear that she'll get pregnant, he better keep her out of the sun, too, because even the sun can produce bastard pregnancies (60). Although Hamlet is perceived as mad by all the characters in the play, his play with words reminds the audience that his wits are still intact. "Words, words, words" (..1), says Hamlet, in response to Polonius' question, "What do you read, my lord?" Of course, Polonius wants to know the meaning of the words in the book that Hamlet is reading, but Hamlet's answer suggests that they are meaningless. Polonius then follows up with a clarification "What is the matter, my lord?" By "matter" he means "subject matter," but Hamlet again deliberately misinterprets. He takes "matter" to mean something wrong and answers Polonius' question with a question ("Between who?"), as though someone were quarreling with someone else. "Slanders, sir" (..16), replies Hamlet to Polonius' question about what he is reading. He pretends that the author of the book has written that old men have "grey beards," wrinkled faces, and a "plentiful lack of wit." He then says that he believes all of this, but it is not nice to write it down, "for yourself, sir, shall grow old as I am, if like a crab you could walk backward." Therefore, if what he pretends to read is true, it is not slander. Moreover, although it is not nice to point out anyone that everyone gets old and foolish, it is a terrible truth that Polonius does not realize about himself (Charney 164). Hamlet puts this last point backwards, saying that Polonius will get younger ("old as I am") if he can go backwards in time. Of course, Polonius cannot go backwards in time, but he does not understand what Hamlet has just said, thus emphasizing what a comical fool he is. Hamlet comments on death when Polonius asks him some innocent questions in the same scene. "Into my grave" (..07), replies Hamlet to Polonius' question, "Will you walk out of the air, my lord?" Apparently, the room is drafty, and Polonius is inviting Hamlet to go to a warmer room, but Hamlet implies that he would sooner be dead than go any place with Polonius (Fisch 01). Moments later, Hamlet makes a comment that sounds similar, but expresses a great weariness with life. Polonius says goodbye with the usual polite words "My lords, I will take my leave of you," and Hamlet replies, "You cannot, sir, take from me anything that I will willingly part withal except my life…" (..15-17). Hamlet means that he is very willing to be free of Polonius, and that he is even more willing to be free of his own life. Again, here his play with words reinforces that he maintains his wit as well as reminds us of the seriousness of the situation; an insight which in turn evokes a deeper understanding of Hamlet and increases his believability. Hamlet uses his pretended madness to gain the license of the fool; now he can freely goad the king and queen. He warns Horatio in act three that "They are coming to the play I must be idle" (..). Idle means foolish, absurd, and thoughtless. The title of Hamlet's play-within-a-play is The Mousetrap. The title of The Mousetrap is meant "tropically" (..4), or figuratively. However, the spelling in Quarto I is "trapically" (Bamber 65). Thus, Hamlet will catch the conscience of the king through Hamlet's own cunning intelligence. Shakespeare also incorporates "bawdry, country matters" (..11), which the groundlings see as good comedy. The aristocracy, however, sees them as inexplicable "dumb shows and noise" (..1-1). Shakespeare is well aware of the caste systems of Elizabethan society. Our perception of Hamlet as justified is reinforced in act three where he again encounters his mother. This encounter also presents an audible movement of the plot. In the bedroom scene, Hamlet refers to two pictures in his mother's room as "counterfeit presentments" (.4.64). He is referring to the portraits of his mother's husbands, one of the late Hamlet, one of Claudius. In Elizabethan times, counterfeit meant "portrait," but Shakespeare knew that counterfeit also meant an imitation of the real thing (Weitz 111). Prince Hamlet's mode of revealing the truth is through the pun (Bloom 68). In act four, Hamlet banters with Claudius at length over the death of Polonius and where his remains lie. Hamlet says to Claudius, "[Polonius is] in heaven. Send thither to thee. If you…find him not there, seek him in the other place yourself" (4..7-). Hamlet has just told the king to go to hell. The only character who is allowed to insult is the jester, who is deemed as mad. Hamlet speaks in prose when in conversation with Claudius, assuming the role of the lunatic to confuse the king; it is the lunatic that is often the most truthful (Boyce 04). Hamlet knows this, and falls into the habit of punning mercilessly. Author Morris Weitz says that "they [puns] are right…because they imitate situations in real life where punning is the natural expression of a particular emotion [and]… are justifiable…because they intensify the passion and thereby move the action of the drama" (185-86).The passion is intensified by puns precisely because puns happen in day-to-day situations. Real people use puns when they are confused, irritated, or scared. Hamlet takes on the appearance of a real person, thus increasing the passion of the play. Punning is a reflexsince English words have so many multiple meanings, it is unavoidable. In Shakespearean tragedy, there is always a moment in which the tragic hero realizes he cannot fight his destiny, and this moment occurs in scene one of act five in Hamlet. The gravediggers assist here in altering the mood of the play. The main comic character, Polonius, is murdered, and things are getting tense. In act four, Laertes' and Claudius' plots, along with Ophelia's madness and death, beg for relief of tension" (Fisch 77). The graveyard scene doesn't just serve to relieve the tension, though. For it is in the graveyard where the humor becomes darker than ever and with it where Hamlet inches closer to his own doom. Hamlet's realization of his destiny can only come after the darkening of the mood and the heightening of the suspence, however. In act five, Hamlet regrets death, but can come to terms with it, perhaps by using humor to distance himself from "consider[ing] too curiously" its attractions. Shakespeare seems intent on distancing the audience from emotional implications of Ophelia's death and Hamlet's impending doom (Bamber 167). He is trying to save the emotional release until the final catastrophe. The primary function of this scene is not to advance the plot; rather, it is to delay development (Watts 87), providing the needed comic relief in the face of the rapidly approaching climax. The most obvious way that suspense is built but tension is relieved is through a visual cue and through verbal jokes. There is an open grave on the stage. It is Ophelia's, but Hamlet, despite his best efforts, does not know this. The suspense of the scene (on account of this dramatic irony) rises from the point at which Hamlet attempts to discover the identity of the deceased at line , to the point at which he finds out at line 0. The open grave is also a sign of death, which awaits all the major characters at the end of the play. The story has come from the plotting of Hamlet's death in act four, scene seven, to Hamlet jesting unknowingly beside an open grave (Nardo 1). The jokes themselves, set against the grave and the knowledge that Hamlet will die shortly might be said to lessen the tension but raise the suspense. Two men are digging Ophelia's grave. One asks whether someone who tries to go to heaven by the short route (suicide) can be given Christian burial. In Shakespeare's time (as Hamlet already mentioned in act one, scene two), suicide was considered a sin, and sometimes even unforgivable. Suicides would ordinarily be buried in unconsecrated ground without a Christian service. Sometimes they'd be buried at a crossroads (because of the cross symbol created by the roads and as a warning to others not to do the same), and sometimes with a stake through the heart to prevent them from rising as the undead (Florescu et al 11-0). The gravedigger tells two riddles one concerns the claim that digging is the oldest trade in the world; the second asserts that gravediggers build more securely than "a mason, a shipwright, or a carpenter" (5.1.51). The song seems to begin as a love song but rapidly turns into a reflection upon life's brevity, supposedly sung by a corpse. What these two have in common, of course, is that insistence upon death's power and inevitability. The gravedigger is not simply flaunting his skills, but rather, assists in altering the mood of the play (Nardo ). The men joke about how politics has influenced the coroner's decision to allow Christian burial (5.1.5). They parody lawyer talk ("Maybe the water jumped on her, instead of her jumping into the water. Or maybe she drowned herself in her own defense.") They say what a sham it is that, in the corrupt world, rich people have more of a right to commit suicide than do poor people. Paradoxically, though, at the same time as darkening the mood, this section is also funny. This is not mere comic relief, however. Why would Shakespeare want to decrease the suspense at this point? One may find humor in Polonius' murder, and even the fencing match, with its farcical switching of swords and drinks, has a comic element. The purposes and effects of humor in Hamlet are varied. In the graveyard scene, though, Shakespeare seems intent on distancing the audience from the emotional implications of Ophelia's death and Hamlet's impending doom (Bamber 167). Perhaps this is with the intention of saving emotional release until the very end. Furthermore, humor in the graveyard scene does not solely come from the gravediggers. Hamlet jests about the owner of the skull that is thrown up out of the grave. This is the essence of the humor in this section of the play. The mixture of wit and skulls helps to emphasize the differences in Hamlet's reactions (Boyce 0). He is coming to terms with his morality and his morbidity, which magnifies his realness. Previous reflections about death, such as the "To be or not to be" soliloquy (.1), have focused upon its finality, terrors, and twisted desirability. Here, Hamlet regrets death and is able to use humor to distance himself from "considering too curiously" its attractions. The gravediggers serve as a pseudo-chorus (such as those seen in Oedipus Rex or Antigone) that comments on the main thoughts of the character or the main action of the scene. The gravedigger sings a contemporary song about having been in love and making love, and thinking it was great. He tosses up a skull. Hamlet (in disguise) asks who is to be buried. The men exchange wisecracks about death and Hamlet's insanity. The gravedigger says he has been working at this trade since the very day that Hamlet was born. Thus, the gravedigger comes to stand for Hamlet's very mortality (Charney 01). Hamlet asks about dead bodies, makes a four-way pun on the word "fine," and jokes about "chop-fallen" (in living people it means frowning, but the skull has lost its "chop," or jawbone). The gravedigger tells him which skull belonged to the court jester, Yorick. Hamlet also remembers Yorick's jokes and his kindness. However, there is more. In the medieval world, it was the special privilege of the court jester to tell the truth. In Shakespeare's plays (notably King Lear), the jester's role as truth-teller is central. Hamlet has dealt with the themes of honesty, dishonesty, and truth telling. In this most famous scene of all, Yorick tells the truth without saying a word. Everyone ends up in the same place, dead. Another reason that Hamlet shares light-hearted humor with the gravedigger is precisely to lessen this burdensome knowledge that death comes to all, whether it is Caesar or Yorick. "Hamlet cannot escape the wickedly punning reminder of 'this same skull,' that all skulls look frightfully the same" (Nardo 11). Hamlet's realization here is two fold for the audience; his relation to the skull reminds us of our relation to the skull which then reminds us of the shared human experience and invariably reinforces Hamlet's realness, his believability. In conclusion, many critics have argued that the reason for the use of humor in Hamlet was because the groundlings would not be satisfied watching high-class drama, that they needed to be entertained, and Shakespeare understood that he must appease all viewers. Although it is understood that Elizabethan dram was "full of interplay between the stage and the pit" (Bloom 44), it is my estimation that the humor was employed to serve a greater purpose than simply to intertain the groundlings. It is through the dark humor that we more closely identify with Hamlet and his situation; it is through the dark humor that we come to see him as justified and believable in his actions. Hamlet's use of the pun, his dialogue with the minor character Polonius, and his realization in the graveyard scene all reveal the comic relief within this tragedy that connects the audience to the tragic hero through the sharing of the human experience. Works CitedBamber, Linda. Comic Women, Tragic Men. Stanford Stanford University Press, 18.Bloom, Harold, ed. Modern Critical Interpretations Hamlet. NewYork Chelsea House, 186.Boyce, Charles. Shakespeare A to Z. New York Roundtable Press, Inc., 10.Charney, Maurice. Style in Hamlet. Princeton Princeton University Press, 16.Fisch, Harold. Hamlet and the Word. New York Frederick Ungar Pubishing Company, Inc., 171.Florescu, Radu, and McNally, Raymond T. In Search of Dracula. New York Houghton Mifflin Company, 14.Nardo, Don, ed. Readings on Hamlet. San Diego Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1.Thomson, Peter. Shakespeare's Theatre. London Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1.Watts, Cedric. Hamlet. Boston Twayne Publishers, 188.Weitz, Morris. Hamlet and the Philosophy of Literary Criticism. Cleveland The World Publishing Company, 164. Please note that this sample paper on Dark Humor in Hamlet is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Dark Humor in Hamlet, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Dark Humor in Hamlet will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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THE BAUW: WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS AND POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT IN BULGARIA, AN OVERVIEW

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The goal of this paper is offering a longitudinal case study of the Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW) as an individual SMO within the frame of the emergence and history of women's movements in Bulgaria. It is based on primary sources (such as the unpublished archives of the Bulgarian Communist Party). It will discuss the Association's development in the period between the Bulgarian National Revival (the 150-iås) and the fall of Communism (from 18 onwards), and will focus on the changes in the official discourse of women's movements in response to that of the power structure. At the same time, it will discuss their interaction with the state, and the ways in which the changes in political environment affected their identity and organization.BAUW - THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT DURING THE PERIOD OF THE NATIONAL REVIVALThe noble, enlightening wind of the modern times has ruffled the lines of our gentle sex as well, leaving there glorious monuments in honor of education. The women's associations which are among the best and most precious fruits of the modern times and which initially were not considered to have as much stamina as they recently showed, are the clearest testimony of how mightily our people has been shaken by the hand of the spirit of the present era. P. Slaveikov, 187

College papers on THE BAUW: WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS AND POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT IN BULGARIA, AN OVERVIEW

The women's movement in Bulgaria dates back to the late 1850-ies, the period of the Bulgarian National Revival. Within less than a decade a myriad of women's organizations were founded in just about every large town of the country. Bearing names like Milosurdie (Charity), Dobrodetel (Virtue), Razvitie (Progress) and Zhenski glas (Female Voice), they were part of the rich tapestry of a newly emerging national and social consciousness (Mouharska ). The initial quote practically illustrates the unique synthesis of two pivotal discourses, which channeled the social energy of the epoch the national and the educational. The two are so closely knit together, that reading through the documents of the time, one can hardly separate them. In a unique way the women's movement was born out of this mixture in a non-antagonizing way. It suffices to remember that during the late 1-th century, prior to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, Balkan societies were extremely patriarchal probably a defense mechanism against assimilation (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 18). It is within the constraints of national patriarchy, and the already loosening political ties of the Empire that women started to build a new identity, inscribing its discourse within the larger discourse of nation, enlightenment, education and progress. And while the larger, embedding nationalist discourse exhibits all the traits of social and political discontent and contestation, it also offers various new identities and incentives for collective action (Mouharska 55). The women's movement is a practical outcome of this new constellation of possibilities. Stepping out of the traditional roles of mothers and wives, women opted for education and emancipation. This development, however, was not overridden with gender conflict. Women came on the social scene precisely at the time when Bulgarian society was learning new social roles and competences. This also explains why for a long time the Bulgarian women's movement did not evolve an oppositional gender discourse (Bulgarian Group for Gender Research 5). The driving force behind the numerous organizations of civil society both before and after the National Liberation, was the desire to catch up with the progressive spirit of the time and become reintegrated within Europe (Koumanov 8). And among the "European values" which Bulgarian society embraced wholeheartedly, were education and social participation for women.After the LiberationBulgaria regained its national independence following the Russo-Turkish war in 1878. Politically, it was organized as a parliamentary monarchy with one of the most progressive democratic constitutions in Europe at the time, the Turnovo Constitution 1878-187 (Hristov 10). In the period from the Liberation until World War II there was a rapid differentiation of the political and ideological field. The numerous political parties were loosely grouped around the conservative and liberal democratic concepts. It is in this period that a new dimension evolved within the discourse and practices of some women's groups. For the first time claims were formulated against inequality in higher education, professional and electoral rights. World War I was the point of departure for a stream in the women's movement which closely converged with socialist claims and ideology. The war acted as a catalyst for the radical wing among women's groups (Mouharska 0). Pressed by poverty and the bleak realities of everyday life, women initiated a number of demonstrations and protest marches, some of which ended in violence, e.g. "the women's revolts" in the tons of Svishtov, Sliven, Pazardzhik, Dupnitsa, Veliko Turnovo. Political parties did not lag behind the realities of civil society practically all big parties had women's wings (Bulgarian Group for Gender Research 66). This fact is hard to evaluate without special research. It is not quite obvious whether the political field was taking advantage of the energy generated by movement groups, and ultimately sapping its energy, or genuinely trying to add a gender dimension to political problems.Origins of the BAUWThe Bulgarian Association of University Women (BAUW) was founded on May , 14 in Sofia, as a cultural and educational organization, member of the International Federation of University Women. To be more precise, BAUW was co-founder of the IFUW along with the British and Swiss associations ("Archive of The Bulgarian Association of University Women"). Thus, it was inscribed within an international context right from its very beginnings. This fact was important for two reasons. Firstly, because all national member organizations shared similar aims and adopted identical statutes, and secondly, because the hierarchical structure and method of functioning ensured its sustainable development over a long period of time. Here are some of the aims BAUW puts forward as the rationale for its existencea) to unite Bulgarian university women on the grounds of their common interests and encourage them in their scientific and social activities;b) to give full intellectual and moral support to its members and provided there is a financial possibility for that assist them materially to work in the sphere of science and the arts;c) to collect and distribute information of interest for its members;d) to make a survey on the position of Bulgarian university women, by collecting and processing statistical data which refer to them;e) to promote the professional equality among men and women;f) to take special care of female students ("Archive of The Bulgarian Association of University Women").The inspiration underlying this list rests on two realities the existence of professional women with university education, and the realization of their unequal status in comparison to their male counterparts. Even though the latter statement is not straightforward, but rather left to be inferred, it was given special attention by the government, as represented by the Secret Police ("Archive of The Bulgarian Association of University Women").The list of founding members of the BAUW contains professional teachers, architects, doctors, accountants, artists, etc. It is testimony to the continuity with the heritage of the long pre-liberation period, when the national spirit required that daughters, as well as sons, should get the best in terms of education, usually in Europe. Ideologically, BAUW steered close to the liberal socialist ideals of the time. Membership required a university education, but did not exclude allegiance with a political doctrine, or party. The data available show that the most active members of the BAUW were also social democrats, or communists. Some were closely related to notable social figures of the time. Thus, by virtue of this shared allegiance, the gender discourse of the period was couched within social democratic terminology and practices (Bulgarian Group for Gender Research 14). As I mentioned in the previous paragraph, the activities of the BAUW were monitored by the Secret Police as a potential menace to the state. The occasion, as can be seen in the excerpts below, was the Open Letter to the Prime Minister, advocating equality for women, initiated by D-r Vera Zlatareva, member of the Board of Officers of BAUW, who also endorsed the support of the Workers' and Communist parties. To Secretary of the Intelligence UnitFrom Agent No. 5A women's constitutional commission has been formed, which aims at fighting for the restoration of the Constitution and granting full rights to the women. The constitutional commission is headed by d-r Vera Zlatareva. The commission launched this open letter and through the Workers' party distributed it among the regional secretaries of the party, and the latter, on their part among the masses to be signed and after the signatures were collected, to be returned to the women's constitutional commission which sent it to the Prime Minister. The letter was published and distributed in 5000 copies. Since the Workers' party also took part, Vera Zlatareva took the responsibility, and agreed to say everywhere that it is on her initiative that the above letter is distributed among the women. …D-r Vera Dimitrova Zlatareva was elected delegate of the international women's conference, convened by the communists on 1-14-15. V. 18 in Marseille, but she was not allowed to travel to France on these dates. /See doc. No. 70 and 710 of the Board of Directors of the Police and respective attachments/. …I bring to your attention, Sir, that from the evidence gathered, I was able to establish that D-r Vera Dimitrova Zlatareva in almost all her public discourses has been very skillfully propagating the ideology of the communist party and for this reason she is admired by the popular masses (!). Her lectures are always highly attended. Vera Zlatareva was also very active in the abstinence movement in Bulgaria. After she married Dr. Mihail Genovski a well-known and very active member of the "Pladne" political circle, she fully succumbed to his influence … ("Archive of The Secret Police").These documents provide the complementary point of view that of the formal political system that BAUW is trying to shake from outside. Coming from the pen of a 'secret agent', they are an impressive assessment of BAUW's leadership potential, mobilizing resources and style of work. The specific imbrications of emancipating discourses and protest practices are typical for the period the late 40-ies (Mouharska 1). Within the Bulgarian context, women's organizations were resourceful, yet reformatory, rather than revolutionary and disruptive.The texts also give a glimpse of BAUW's opponent the state and its repressive organ, the Secret Police. It is obvious that the instigators of the open letter mission were regarded as a serious challenge, yet the actual subject the author envisages is ambiguous. He is impressed with Vera Zlatareva's dual identity she is a female political activist of communist inflection, campaigning for women's rights. Yet what we perceive as her feminist essence is constantly downplayed by him. Which aspect of her activity and identity is he prone to criminalize? Is it her allegiance with the communists on this particular instance, or is it the gender equality issue? This remains unclear, and it cannot be otherwise, as it is built in as a structural component within the way the women's movement inscribed itself within the political system prior to the communist regime. Gender social activism was taken seriously enough to deserve 'unfair play' (e.g. obstructing their international contacts, stopping them from traveling), yet it was consistently de-emphasized by negating the essence and focusing on the collaterals (Mouharska ). The campaign for gender equality is completely overshadowed by Zlatareva's connection to Communist party activists. This is all summarized in the secret agents last words "All the meetings which d-r Genovski organizes at his home on 17, Klementina st., are attended by his wife Vera Zlatareva, who is a blind tool of her husband" ("Archive of The Secret Police").WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN THE COMMUNIST POLITICAL SYSTEMThe end of World War II brought dramatic changes to countries in Central and South-East Europe. As tradition had it, until recently there was a 'sacred' date for each of them, celebrated as the day of the 'People's revolution', the date of the tumultuous transition to a social order long aspired for. This myth, however, came into circulation relatively later after 147, when social space was once and for all monopolized by a single political subject the Communist Party.For four years Bulgaria had a left-coalition government of the Fatherland Front, dominated by the representatives of the Bulgarian Workers' Party (communists). Although the dominant political discourse reflected the left-wing ideologies of the partners, the political and social scene was still rife with bustling activity. Opposition parties, though aware of the new geopolitical realities, were forcefully opposing what they saw as the infiltration of an alien (Soviet) social and political discourse and practices (Koumanov 41).Since the liberal democratic social model presupposes a division of social space into 'the political' proper and the space of civil society, it is this 'niche' that one should look into when trying to outline the history of women's organizations. The facts speak for themselves Immediately after September 144, the following women's organizations were functioning Maichina Grizha (Mothercare) in Gabrovo and Plovdiv, Bulgarski dom (Bulgarian Home), Vdovitsa (Widow), The Union of Families with Many Children, the Union of Women in Agriculture, the Bulgarian Association of University Women, and the Bulgarian Women's Union (Bulgarian Group for Gender Research 50). The names of these organizations attest to the various tasks they had set themselves and to the social commitments Bulgarian women were willing to take.Following September 144 and the formation of the Fatherland Front government, women's commissions were formed as part of its national and local level structures (Bulgarian Group for Gender Research 71). They initiated the establishing of the Bulgarian National Women's Union (BNWU), claiming to be the hair to the Bulgarian Women's Union pre-144. It is worth mentioning that an attempt was made to 'renew' the existing women's organizations by "replacing their leadership with the activists of the BNWU" which proved unsuccessful. Hence, a different strategy was employed the Bulgarian National Women's Union incorporated, or swallowed up all previously existing autonomous women's organizations. Its first congress was held in June, 145 ("Archive of The Fatherland Front"). Thus, the multiplicity of organizations was replaced for a single overarching unit.The Bulgarian National Women's Union enjoyed a six-year life. On November 7, 150 the national conference of the BNWU made a decision to cease its independent existence and join the Fatherland Front. Within the latter's structures the Committee of Democratic Women was established, which took up 'work among the women' as it was customary to say by that time ("Archive of the Committee of Democratic Bulgarian Women"). The fate of women's organizations was shared by practically all SMO's existing prior to 144. Over a period of -7 years members of the ruling coalition employed the strategies of gradual 'hostile takeover', merger and original discourse displacement, until finally a 'homogeneous' product was achieved, part and parcel of the state machine and fully manipulated by it. Its activities were limited to issuing (and manipulating) reports on the status of Bulgarian women, and serving as the system's mouthpiece in glorifying the long-achieved gender equality under communism, and anathemizing the BNWU's counterparts in the capitalist world. Membership, even though encouraged (but not made mandatory), was limited (Bulgarian Group for Gender Research 80).Here is the way in which the new, reformed BNWU assessed the history of the women's movement prior to the communist revolutionThe BNWU is the birth child of September , 144. By that time there existed a union of the Bulgarian women, but it united bourgeois women. The doors of this union were closed for women from the people. Its activities amounted to organizing tea parties and small charity to fill the ample free time of bourgeois women.The victory of the mass anti-fascist revolt of ..144 brought liberation for working Bulgarian women, too. This freedom, however, was not given to them as a gift. They fought for it. Women were most active in the heroic struggle of our people against the Tsarist, police and fascist domination. In concentration camps and prisons, in partisan squads, as helpers and couriers there were numerous women who manfully and with dignity stood up the trials and fought along with the men. There were numerous victims among the women, too. The names of Yana Laskova, Vela Piskova, Yordanka Chankova, L. Dimitrova and hundreds of known and unknown heroines will remain a bright page in the heroic history of our people and will shed light on the Bulgarian woman's road to her ascent.The people's government estimated the sizable contributions of women in the struggle for freedom and one of the first laws passed granted full political rights to women. Woman was recognized as equal to man in all spheres of human activity. Thousands of women, who by that time had lived in the narrow circle of family and kitchen interests felt liberated for social and political life ("Archive of the Bulgarian National Women's Union").Once again, the gender aspect is pushed aside, this time completely digested within the discourse of a triumphant official language, glorifying itself. In its denial of resistant identities and discourses, the communist system ultimately produced a strain of language completely devoid of any sense. Now that we have access to archives, however, it appears that the documents and decisions which really made a difference nearly always came within the genre of The X-files. Here I mean documents, reports and analyses produced within the system itself, and not within resistance circles. Thus, in the late 60-ies, the Committee of Bulgarian Women, generally perceived as completely useless, produced a secret report based on a comprehensive study of women at work. The study claimed that urban women spent an average of 15 minutes daily on their children, while women in agriculture spent 8 minutes only. Further on, the authors argued that the economy would benefit from fully-paid maternity leave until children reached school age ("Archive of the Political Bureau of the Bulgarian Communist Party"). Without denying the significance of women's access to the professional field, the report practically blames the state and the political system for placing a dangerous double burden on women. At the time, however, it was completely clear that the economic system could not cope with its own tensions and achieve the promises so amply lavished 0 years before.WOMEN OR GENDER THE BAUW AFTER THE COLLAPSE OF THE COMMUNIST SYSTEMIn 18 Bulgaria opened itself to the multiplicity of late modern discourses, so strictly avoided by that time. One of the first dramatic clashes occurred with feminist discursive and non-discursive practices. Open as post-communist society was to new ways of conceptualizing the world, gender discourses were among the first to come across certain resistance. What is more, the resistance seems to have occurred at the discoursal, and not at the conceptual level. Resentment was largely due to the fact that as a resistant discourse feminism is constructed in opposition to mainstream Western discourse, which in turn, post-communism was seeking to embrace. Thus, paradoxically, despite the wide recognition and resentment to the 'double burden' of the communist 'superwoman', feminist discourse was not felt to possess the liberating potential it has for Western women (Mouharska 78). And even more paradoxically, in trying to explain their reaction, Bulgarian women resorted to official emancipatory discourse of the communist period women in this part of the world have already 'achieved' what feminism strives for, though they are not sure if it was worth it.Thus, the issues raised were both 'old' and 'new'. Old ad nauseam because of the prolific and generous treatment of the topic in official communist discourse before 18. New because the familiar problems were inflected in a different way in the beginning this novelty was only felt intuitively. To me the ambiguity of the clash lies in the opposition women vs. gender. The former belongs to the 'things already past' and the latter to a reality which is yet to come. Significantly, the term 'gender' has not found a meaningful translation yet. The BAUW is given a new lease of lifeIn 1 a group of Bulgarian university lecturers were approached by members of the British Federation of University Women with the suggestion to renew a connection of long standing between that organization and its Bulgarian counterpart, which existed until 150. Thus, it turned out that the archives of the original BAUW could be retrieved from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, where they were kept after it was forced to close down in 150. This was followed by a legal request to re-establish the organization, which was accomplished by early 1 (Dakova ).The BAUW in search of identityNowadays the BAUW's chief problem is that of identity. The Statutes require that membership is granted to all women with university degree ("Archive of The Bulgarian Association of University Women"). Unlike other organizations, where shared identity is the chief motive for participation, the BAUW has to negotiate its own right of existence among a wide array of present-day female identities conservative (the old communist type of activist who claims to have achieved gender equality long ago), radical (eager to scandalize academia), those whose chief interest is in feminist theory, and those who would like to focus on social issues. None of these groups has gained the upper hand for the time being, largely because for nine long years there was a difficult lesson to learn how to survive in a social climate which is neither hostile, nor supportive (Dakova 4). The greatest challenge for all SMO's initially was to learn the language and realities of NGO's at the turn of the 0th century. Thus, the choice over liberal or radical philosophy was supplemented with the management-speak of organization building, budgeting, fund-raising, etc. The BAUW's agenda is largely dictated by foreign funding organizations, and its collective identity is thus slowly coming to terms with the outcomes of the women's movement in the West. To use another fashionable term, borrowed from EC-speak, a 'harmonization' is occurring between the agenda of similar organizations through the distribution of funds (Dakova 8).If there is a hope for BAUW to find a focused collective identity and mobilize its efforts, it comes from the writings of some Bulgarian female journalists. Here is a text, produced two months ago in response to Parliament discussions on gender equality at workFrom now on, discussions on the topic of gender discrimination should be banned. Do Bulgarian women have to listen to flat-breasted foreign lecturers, who are paid to tell us that their husbands' favorite pastime is oppressing them, given that Bulgarian women have never had a problem like this? Just a few days ago, a cured alcoholic thanked her doctors over the Bulgarian National radio, saying "When I got drunk, I'd beat my husband." What is more, Bulgarian women have monopolized all professions, normally considered a male domain teaching, medicine, journalism. I suggest the following we should ask the manager of the National Historical Museum to acquire and exhibit a few males as an extinguished species so that we can show them to foreign feminist lecturers when they come to tell us how despotic men are (Kamenova 00).As the preceding pages demonstrated, the discourse, identity and even existence of women's movements in Bulgaria are largely dictated by the political realities of the day. Since 18, they have also been affected by the burden of previous social and political experiences. Since neither the official feminist discourse, nor the mechanism of gender movement emergence typical for the West have found application in the country, it could be expected that as women's movements there develop, opportunities for new, region-specific, research and theories will occur. What is left for students of feminism is to wait and see. Please note that this sample paper on THE BAUW: WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS AND POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT IN BULGARIA, AN OVERVIEW is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on THE BAUW: WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS AND POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT IN BULGARIA, AN OVERVIEW, we are here to assist you. 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