Rome

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I. SummaryThe Roman Empire was one of the largest in world history. A common saying All Roads Lead to Rome alludes to this central hub of technology, literature, and architecture. Rome became a great empire for many reasons great rulers, great armies, a suitable location, and notable achievements from visionary builders. The engineers of the Roman age created an amazing network of roads, built strong arched bridges, harnessed water power using aqueducts and created public baths complete with gardens and restaurants that would rival some water parks of today.The Romans built roads, aqueducts, and bridges so skillfully that some are still in use ,000 years after construction. Buildings based on Roman architecture stand today throughout the world. Students will examine the significant achievements of Roman roads, bridges, baths, and buildings as they research, organize their information, and then prepare and present their data in either a software presentation or in booklet form. Students will also have a chance to better understand Roman architecture by participating in two class experiments using the inquiry method 1. creating an aqueduct and . building a strong arch. Students will participate in a self-assessment of the project and their presentation will be graded from a rubric that will be shared with them before creating their presentation.

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I. I. SummaryRoman towns were noisy and crowded places in which to live. The empire included many different kinds of people. Within the empire, there lived barbaric Germanic tribesmen, Jewish scholars, wealthy and educated Greeks, farmers, and slaves. Students will be given the opportunity to virtually visit Ancient Rome at the time that it was the greatest Empire ever and experience different lifestyles. Students will become time travelers traveling back to Ancient Rome. Students will keep a diary of their travels, map their travels, and describe the people they have met. They will examine the money, work, clothing, food, housing, doctors, education, family life, entertainment, religion, military, government, language, bath time, and literature of the era. The languages of modern France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Romania are all descendants from Latin, the Romans language. From the time of learning to write the Romans needed a way to indicate numbers. The Ancient Romans didnt have special characters to stand for numbers; therefore, they used their letters to show numbers. Roman numerals are still utilized in specialized ways today. Students will take a look at Roman Numerals. Although Roman numerals are no longer an essential component of our modern mathematics, Roman numerals need to be considered important because they are a part of our cultural heritage. Students will explore Roman numerals, design a coin, discuss uses of math in Rome, and examine different mathematics systems throughout history.By the time the Roman Empire came to an end, Romes official religion was Christianity. However, throughout most of Romes long history, the people believed in many different gods, goddesses, and spirits. The Romans matched their Roman gods with the Greek ones, making them the basis of their state religion. They prayed and made sacrifices to gods for overall protection, and believed that each deity looked after a particular aspect of life. It was believed that if the gods were angered, they might take out their anger on the people below. People prayed to Venus for success in love and beauty, and to Mars for success in war. Jupiter was King of the gods and of thunder and lightening, and his wife and sister Juno was Goddess of women and childbirth. Mercury was Jupiters messenger and God of trade and thieves. Minerva was Goddess of wisdom, crafts, and war. Bacchus was God of wine, and Neptune was God of the sea. These gods and goddesses had special powers, but behaved as ordinary people they argued, got jealous, and even tried to trick each other.How did Romes religious beliefs affect our world? Students will participate in a detailed study of Roman mythology, and will research, write creatively, role-play, and improve their general knowledge base of mythology. Family StructureAt the head of Roman family life was the Paterfamilias the oldest living male in a family, who was absolute ruler of the household. By Roman law, a father wielded absolute control over his children. Those who displeased him could be disowned, sold into slavery, or even killed. He would perform certain religious rites on behalf of his family, and oversee the family business and property. Only the paterfamilias could own property in a family. His sons regardless of age would receive an allowance (peliculum) to use in maintaining their own households. The continuance of family names was extremely important, and families without sons could adopt one, often a nephew, so the family line would not die out. Judith Hallett Rome is definitely a patriarchal society. The operative political and legal unit was the family headed by the eldest man. But because the family was such an important unit and because family membership by blood meant so much, women were extraordinarily important within the Roman family. They could not vote. They could not hold office. They obviously were not involved in the same type of military exploits as men; but within the family circle, they were not only expected to transmit, but also to display the same qualities that would secure public prominence for their men folk. Fathers also had the right to decide whether to keep or expose their newborn babies. The midwife placed babies on the ground, and only when the paterfamilias picked it up was the baby formally accepted into the family. Exposure the deliberate abandonment of an infant to the elements was practiced on obviously deformed infants, or when the father felt the family could not support another child. While much has been made of this seemingly cruel Roman custom, it was assumed that these babies did not die, but were picked up and taken as slaves. Richard Saller With child exposure the first thing to do is make a distinction between exposure and infanticide. Romans who had babies that they couldnt support and didnt want to raise would have set them out in an appointed place where passersby could pick them up if they wanted to. Why did they do it? Well because they had no predictable form of birth control. Having the right size family has been a problem through the ages... For poor families the problem was matching their resources to the size of their family. And so the exposure of a newborn in some cases was a kind of calculated form of love for the rest of the familyA Roman mother with her child.The Mater familias was usually much younger than her husband. Roman women generally married in their early teens, but men waited until their mid-twenties. It was understood that the wife oversaw the management of the household, and in the higher classes was expected to behave modestly, move gracefully, and to conduct herself in a manner which would reflect well on her husband and family. An unwed Roman woman was either in patria potestas under the protection of her father or sui iuris independent. In Romes early years the wife, and her property, became in manus under the protection and rule of her husband upon marriage, but by the time of the empire the manus was obsolete, and a woman retained whatever status and property she had prior to marriage. Because so many children died at a young age sadly, 5 percent of babies in that era did not survive their first year, and perhaps half didnt live to age 10 there were legal rewards offered to women for successful childbearing. Under Augustus, women in patria potestas could enter into binding legal agreements without a male representative only after they had borne three live children (four for freedwomen). Marriage and Divorce LawsOnce the families had agreed upon the date of wedding and the financial terms, the marriage itself was a mere formality to prove the couples intention to live together their affectio maritalis. It was in fact not a binding legal agreement, but rather a personal agreement between the bride and groom. More formal divorce procedures were introduced during Augustus reign.Alfredo Foglia Despite that fact, there were specific laws that governed the institution of marriage. A true Roman marriage could not take place unless both bride and groom were Roman citizens, or had been granted conubium permission to enter into a Roman marriage. In early Rome, citizens had been forbidden to marry freedmen or freedwomen; Augustus lex Julia in 18-17 BC limited this restriction to Senators. Augustus also forbade the remarriage of an adultress, the marriage of a citizen to a prostitute or actress, intermarriage between a provincial official and a local woman, the marriage of soldiers in certain circumstances, and marriages within certain degrees of blood relationships. Judith Hallett Augustus moral and marriage legislation does not necessarily reflect any Puritanical agenda on his part. These laws were aimed at Romes wealthiest citizens and represent an effort to get these people to marry and to multiply so that their resources would be spread among several different heirs and they will not prove the kind of political threat that could over turn his power.Divorce Because marriage was not a binding legal agreement, but simply a declaration of intent to live together, Roman divorce was simply a declaration of intent not to live together. All that was required under Augustan law was a declaration before seven witnesses of the desire to divorce. Because of the ease of dissolution, divorce was common, at least among the upper echelons of Roman society. Upon divorce, the wife was entitled to the full return of her dowry, and returned to the patria potestas family protection of her father. If she had been independent of her father prior to marriage, she would regain her independence upon divorce. Roman law did not recognize adultery by husbands, but under Augustus lex Julia of 18 BC a wife found guilty of adultery in a special court known as the quaestio might forfeit the return of half her dowry. EmperorsSocial standing in the Roman Empire was based in part on heredity, property and wealth, Roman citizenship, and freedom. The specific class designations included Senators, Patricians, Equestrians, Plebeians, Slaves, Freedmen, and non-Roman citizens all of which were ruled by the Emperor. The boundaries between these classes were legally enforced, although it was possible to move up the social ladder as ones financial circumstances improved. During the Empire, entry into the higher classes could be gained upon acquisition of property and wealth, or at the pleasure of the Emperor in one famous incident, Caligula even raised a horse to Senatorial rank.Roman society was also defined by an established system of patronage, in which an upper class gentleman patroni offered protection to freedmen, or members of the lower class cliens. That protection might take the form of financial assistance, the provision of food, or legal help. Traditionally, any freed slaves became the cliens of their former owner.In return, the patroni received respect and political favors. During the Empire cliens were required to offer daily greetings to their patroni, and the number of these salutatores, or greeters, were noted in determining someones social status. Roman generals also served as patroni for the peoples they conquered, and various Roman provinces or cities would often seek out an influential Senator to act as patroni and oversee their interests in Rome.Clothing laws helped to distinguish the classes. For example, only the Emperor was allowed to wear a toga which was entirely purple. Senators were allowed to wear a white toga with the latus clavus a broad purple stripe along the edge, and Equestrian togas could sport a clavus augustus (narrow purple stripe). Emperors distributed free food to Romans to win their political support.The Emperor and his relatives lived in the best villas, had the finest foods, furnishings, and clothing, and lived a luxurious life of leisure, gossip, and indulgence. That lifestyle, however, often came at a high price. Succession to Emperor was not strictly hereditary, and required Senatorial approval. Those men (and the families behind them) who coveted the throne had to constantly jockey for position both within their own families, and within the many factions among the Senate and dabbled in intrigue, backstabbing, and even murder.Judith Hallett [This is] whats wrong with the system that Augustus established. Its a system thats only as strong as the male member of the family who comes to power is, emotionally and physically. And while there were some very impressive people, most notably Augustus, who assumed this role, there were others who had a great deal wrong with them. And a lot of what was wrong with them was merely living in this household where people were constantly vying for power and favor.PatriciansThe name Patrician comes from the Latin word patres, or fathers, and the Patricians were a privileged group of families that dominated the political, religious, and military leadership of the Empire. The majority were wealthy landowners from old Roman families, although the Emperor could raise anyone he chose to Patrician status. Patrician status was required for ascent to the throne, but otherwise the class had few privileges other than reduced military obligations, and the ability to serve in certain priesthoods.The education of a Patrician son would center on literature, poetry, mythology, history, geography, Greek, and, most importantly, public speaking. Older youth would continue on to study law, in preparation for a political or administrative career. SenatorsThe Senate in Imperial Rome consisted of 600 men, who were either sons of senators, or Roman citizens over the age of 5 with both military and administrative experience, who were elected to the quaestorship a low-ranking magistracy position. These potential candidates were nominated by the Emperor, and the elections were merely a formality. Once elected, a Senators career path through various magistracies including the quaestorship, the aedileship, the praetorship, and the consulship determined his Senatorial rank.Only a small percentage of Romans could afford to be involved in politics.The Emperor held the title of Princeps Senatus, and could appoint new Senators, convene and preside over the Senate, and propose legislation. Because the Imperial Senate took its direction from the Emperor, its real powers lay in its judicial functions, in its discussion of political and legislative matters, and in its ultimate right to confer the title of Emperor. Augustus instituted a property requirement for Senatorial status of 1,000,000 sesterces, and since Senators received no payment, only a small percentage of the population could afford to become deeply involved in politics. The lex Claudia (18 BC) also prevented Senators from engaging directly in commerce, especially shipping and government contracts, to avoid any possible conflict of interest while carrying out their Senatorial duties.In addition to their political power, Senators had special privileges in Roman society, including special seating at public ceremonies and games, the rights to hold the highest official offices and judgeships in criminal and civil courts, and the honor of wearing the latus clavus the purple striped toga.Both the Senate as a governing body, and social laws such as the lex Claudia, were political remnants of the earlier Roman Republic. One of Augustus great strengths as an Emperor was his ability to maintain the appearance of continuing these traditional Republican institutions, while actually establishing a Principate.PlebeiansBy the time of Augustus and the Empire, the term Plebeian referred to all free Roman citizens who were not members of the Patrician or Equestrian classes.Plebeians were low on the social scale. Their jobs were low on the social scale farmers, bakers, builders, and artisans but these anonymous people paid taxes, struggled to support their families, and, when problems arose, appealed to Roman administrators for relief. Those who were making ends meet might try to set enough money aside to meet the financial qualification to rise into the Equestrian class, but others lived on the edge of ruin.It is more difficult to imagine the daily life of the lower class, because they were not able to record and preserve their experiences as could their more privileged countrymen. The importance of archaeological finds like the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum is that they preserve the living spaces, shops, tools, and graffiti of the common people that would otherwise be lost to history.Ronald Mellor The poor of the ancient world dont speak to us. They dont leave their voices. The writings that come to us from antiquity are the writings of an elite. The art that comes is the art of an elite... But the poor in any city are going to have a very hard time making due. Theyre going to be working on a per day basis. And if there is rain and there is no work in construction they are going to be close to starvation.While the Plebeians had the least power in Rome, they had the greatest numbers, and there was always the risk of unrest, or uprising against the upper classes. It was to an Emperors benefit to keep the poor fed and happy by regulating food prices, and offering free public entertainment in other words, bread and circuses.Karl Galinsky One key constituency for Augustus was the Plebeian population of Rome and that is basically the city mob. You have several hundred thousand folks here who have no jobs and, to put it very simply, who need to be kept off the streets, and be kept from making trouble. Because its a very volatile, combustible mix thereSlaves and FreedmenSlavery was an abusive and degrading institution, with a long history in the ancient world. The majority of slaves during the Roman Empire were foreigners prisoners of war, sailors captured and sold by pirates, or slaves bought outside Roman territory. It was not uncommon, however, for impoverished Roman citizens to resort to selling their children into slavery. Keith Bradley Slavery was not based on race. In fact, it was what you could call an equal opportunity condition. Anyone was liable to become a slave at any time under certain sets of circumstances. And in fact the biggest difference between ancient forms of slavery and modern forms of slavery that we tend to be more familiar with is this absence of a sharp color contrast in the two systems.Roman frescoAlfredo FogliaRoman slaves merged so well into the population that the Senate once considered a plan to distinguish them by special dress. The idea was rejected, because of the number of slaves serving in private households, in mines and factories, on farms, and working for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts, and buildings. If slaves saw how numerous they were, the Senate decided, they might be emboldened to rebel. Slaves and their children were property of owners, and could be sold or rented at the owners discretion. Their lives were harsh they were often whipped, branded or cruelly mistreated, and their very lives depended on the whims of their owners. While Romans accepted slavery as the norm, there were those who cautioned that slaves should at least be treated fairlySeneca There is a proverb you have as many enemies as you have slaves. But in truth, we make them our enemies. We abuse them as if they were beasts of burden. When we recline for dinner, one wipes our spittle, another picks up the scraps and crumbs thrown down by drunkards. The point of my argument is this treat your inferior as you would like to be treated.But in Rome, slavery had a remarkable feature manumission. Roman owners freed their slaves in considerable numbers either freeing them outright, or by allowing slaves to purchase their freedom. The prospect of possible manumission encouraged slaves to be obedient and efficient.FreedmenFormal manumission performed and witnessed by a magistrate bestowed full Roman citizenship upon a freedman, with the exception that a freedman could not hold public office. Under the law, any children born to freedmen after their manumission were also given the full rights of Roman citizenship, including the right to hold office.Informal manumission did not grant the freedman Roman citizenship, and at his death any accumulated property reverted to his former owner. Former slaves could work as craftsmen, midwives, and merchants, and sometimes achieved wealth. But, in Romes status conscious world, even successful freedmen found the stigma of slavery hard to erase.Andrew Wallace-Hadrill For the slave, slavery was a necessary evil. And I dont suppose any slave ever thought well of the system of slavery. But it seems to me whats really important about the Roman system of slavery was that it gave every slave a chance to be free. And there must have been an enormous psychological pressure on every single slave that that little light somewhere at the end of the tunnel of the possibility of freedom that made them strive to escape from the evil condition in which they found themselves. Please note that this sample paper on Rome is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Rome, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Rome will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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