Jean de La Fontaine

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Steve McKnightSenior Seminar Project1 January 00La Fontaine

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Seventeenth century France was without argument a hotbed of literary and artistic creation. Countless numbers of artists and authors found their footing in Europe's changing structure and celebrated cultural diversity. The boundaries of self-exploration were continually expanding and a new understanding of human behavior was beginning to take root, refurbishing ideas extending back to Antiquity. In this breeding ground for intellectual enlightenment Jean de La Fontaine stands above the rest.La Fontaine, working for many different patrons throughout his years as an author, had an eloquence second to none, and he used his talent to its fullest focusing the majority of his writings on the behavior of one of the world's most interesting species, humans. This subject, however captivating and significant, was not original in the least. History had produced countless volumes of works regarding human behavior and the millions of different idiosyncrasies characteristic only of human beings, attempting to make any new or revolutionizing discoveries would have seemed inconceivable, so La Fontaine made no such effort. Rather than look for a new way to describe his subject, La Fontaine studied the way past masters had gone about the same task. For this most marvelous inspiration Jean de La Fontaine turned to the brilliant Greek penman Aesop. La Fontaine found he could identify with nearly every aspect of Aesop's style and form. Conveniently, Aesop could also have been considered history's definitive fabulist, concentrating solely on the behavior of humans.La Fontaine, in essence, patterned his own work after that of Aesop. Adding his own pieces of narrative to Aesop's fables, La Fontaine was able to achieve some very rich social commentary on the culture of 17th century France. The similitude of ancient Greece to the France inhabited by La Fontaine was not overwhelming but significant enough so that the themes in Aesop's writings were able to permeate the differences and apply to La Fontaine's milieu. While some of LA Fontaine's works are direct translations from Greek to French, others contain subtle twists and rearrangements of words to provide a new way to look at an old instance. The commentary achieved in his fables successfully examines many human behavioral patterns and tendencies ranging from political dealings and economic transactions to the most benign and trivial social interactions. A primary issue present in the writings of La Fontaine is the role that politics plays in the everyday lives of mankind. It is not the least bit surprising that this issue is relevant to the times of both La Fontaine and Aesop, La Fontaine living during the reign of the storied King Louis XIV and Aesop during what is considered by many historians to be the beginning of modern democracy. La Fontaine's atmosphere was, however, significantly different from the one experienced by Aesop. Louis XIV is one of the most powerful rulers in the history of the modern world and he ruled accordingly. No business conducted in France, or even all of Europe for that matter, was beyond the reach of Louis' power. Operating as a "divine monarch," a theory strongly supported by the King's loyal supporters commanders Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, Louis XIV reigned under the general mind frame thatSince the monarch has been selected by God and is obviously charged with doing God's will, he cannot be restrained in his legal authority by any mortal man, by any collection of mortal men such as parliament, or by any document or institution created by mortal men such as a constitution. (Thackeray, 7)With such uncontrollable power it was very seldom that an unkind word was said about the Kingdom ruled by Louis XIV. Although Louis brought much advancement to French society, freedom-loving people could not help but resent the absolute authority that the King had over their lives. To act against the will of the King would result in strict punishment, sometimes including death. This situation was not anything new to the monarch system and therefore bitterness was rarely a critical matter. In fact, King Louis was rather well accepted and gained high esteem all through France with the great cultural policies initiated throughout his reign. He was a popular patron of the arts and subsidized many prominent French literary figures including Jean Racine, Pierre Corneille, painter Charles de Brun, and architect Jules Mansard. Louis XIV dedicated his reign to glorifying and enhancing the monarchy, the pinnacle of which is the palace at Versailles, one of the most magnificent structures built in the 17th century. To accompany his palace, Louis developed and brought into practice an elaborate court ritual that was "complex, arcane, and time-consuming, a superfluous tribute to the already vastly celebrated wealth and power of France and specifically the head of state himself, King Louis XIV. (Durant, 76)" It was from all this pomp and pageantry that La Fontaine was able to derive altered images of government and political bodies, different from those expressed by Aesop's fables but sharing some common elements. One such fable selected by La Fontaine to provide commentary on the tendencies of the French monarchy is "The Wolf and the Sheep." Aesop's tale begins with a wolf meeting a lamb that has somehow become separated from its fold. Not wishing to become violent, the wolf tests his own slyness by attempting to justify his right to eat the lamb. The wolf first accuses the lamb of insulting him previously, to which the lamb replies he had not yet been born. The wolf then claims the sheep has grazed in his pasture, the sheep humbly replying that he had not yet fed on grass. In his final attempt to validate killing and eating the lamb, the wolf declares that the lamb has drank from his well, to which the lamb replies, "No, I never yet drank water, for as yet my mother's milk is both food and drink to me." Immediately following this final thwarted the wolf snatches the lamb and eats him. To conclude his fable, Aesop presents to the reader the moral expressed in this short story, "The tyrant will always find a pretext for his tyranny." This message would have been particularly pertinent during the period when Aesop was writing his fables as common sentiment among Greek scholars was that politics should be handle in a democratic fashion rather than the autocratic methods of foreign leaders found during the same time. The tale told by La Fontaine, given the exact same name, appears at first glance to be identical to Aesop's fable, but upon closer inspection intricate innuendos are revealed. To begin with, La Fontaine's fable states its moral in the very first line, "The stronger man's reasoning always carries the day," interestingly, a much more delicate way of phrasing the same idea put forth by Aesop. To directly use the word tyrant as Aesop had, would have been too harsh, blunt, and conspicuous for La Fontaine to use, keeping in mind the ubiquitous hold King Louis XIV maintained on the release of heretical media and artwork. Moving into the narration of the tale, La Fontaine immediately establishes the human quality of his characters; the wolf is "a starving wolf out to try his luck." In painting the wolf simply as a hungry animal down on his luck, La Fontaine throws a sharp disguise over his underlying meanings and avoids the scrutiny of the King for any dissention. Following the character introductions, the wolf confronts the lamb and reproaches him with rage, one of the most intense human emotions. In response to the wolf's advances the lamb attempts to reason with his accuser and refers to the wolf as "your Majesty." This use of the term as a polite and respectful address allows La Fontaine to clearly convey to his true audience that the wolf is a personification of the oppressive French monarchy. With the roles of the animals clearly established, La Fontaine's fable follows the same sequence as Aesop's with his Majesty mercilessly attacking the innocent sheep and eventually bestowing upon him a punishment of death when no crime had been committed. The change in times allows La Fontaine to select this fable written hundreds of years before by Aesop, and apply it to the situation present in 17th century France. The beauty of La Fontaine's work is his ability to take the universal idea put forth by Aesop, subtly change the details of the story to avoid scandal or trouble, and produce a fable that provides direct commentary on the state of France in the 1600s while retaining the universal quality that makes the fable so enjoyable to read.Another fable by Aesop used by La Fontaine is the tale of "The Frogs Who Asked for a King." In this simple story, a pond of frogs, discontent with the lack of governance present in their home, appeal to Jupiter for a King to rule them. Somewhat annoyed by the frogs' puerile request, he sends a log crashing down into the pond. After overcoming the initial shock created by the splash, the frogs come to the realization that this new leader is altogether harmless and quite devoid of all motion. The frogs promptly seek rectification but growing even more aggravated, Jupiter sends an eel to patrol the waters. However, upon learning of the eel's rather friendly disposition, the frogs come to Jupiter yet again to ask for a King who can rule them properly. On this final request Jupiter sends to the frogs a heron, which will feast on them from that day forth until none remain to croak on the shores. This storyline, followed by both authors, invokes two entirely different sentiments in readers based strictly on the epoch in which each was composed and popularized. In Aesop's day the fable takes a humorous slant as the frogs continue to press Jupiter and in the end they get the fierce king they had asked for but none of them will live long under his reign. La Fontaine's fable takes on a much more allegorical association as French history provides a long list of inept monarchs constantly being replaced by more inept successors. The heron in La Fontaine's fable can be seen as Louis XIV, which serves as flattery to the king but also as dissidence. While the Heron satiates the pleas of the frogs for a great king, he is also the ruin of the frogs and King Louis XIV may not have been so pleased with La Fontaine's work had he known he was being likened to a brutal beast. This fable again shows how the difference in time can completely change the connotation of a story, in this case from fable to satire. Strictly based on the fact that La Fontaine wrote during a different time and state he was able, with "The Frogs Who Asked for a King," to directly reproduce an Aesop fable and its historical context gives it all the subtext and layers a reader could possibly ask for. Finally, Aesop's tale "The Lion, the Wolf, and the Fox" is used by La Fontaine to communicate views on the King's court system. This fable depicts a king, the Lion, who has fallen ill with ailments that puzzle all the physicians of the animal kingdom. Taking notice of the fact that all the animals in the kingdom were present except the Fox, the Wolf seized an opportunity to cause a conflict and informed the king of the fox's absence. Arriving to the gathering just in time to hear the Wolf's accusation, the Fox took his chance to turn the tables. When asked by the Lion where he had been, the Fox told him that he had been searching the countryside for a cure to his ailments. The Fox reported finding that to cure his particular disease, the Lion must "flay a wolf alive and wrap his skin yet warm around him (Aesop, 166)." Upon hearing the fox's remedy the king has the wolf flayed and wears him as a fashionable coat. The story ends with the Fox taunting the wolf; "You should have moved your master not to ill, but to good, will (Aesop, 166)." John C. Bailey, in his book The Claims of French Poetry, points out the fact that "La Fontaine often alludes to courts and courtiers in his fables, and never but with obvious dislike and contempt (111)." This claim is never better realized than in La Fontaine's adaptation of Aesop's fable just described. The La Fontaine version is identical in content until the very end where he issues a direct address to those nobles for whom he holds so much disdain Courtiers, cease destroying one another if you can, ingratiate yourselves without harming each other. In your milieu evil is returned at a rate four times greater than good. Backbiters get their punishment in one manner or another you're engaged in a career in which no one ever forgives or is forgiven. (11)With this message La Fontaine does not need to be secretive or overly clever, he simply points out the absurd nature of courtiers. To constantly jockey for position and favor by means of destroying your peers was neither condoned nor respected by La Fontaine. His acrimony manifested itself in gentle musings such as "The Lion, the Wolf, and the Fox" fable and Bailey also points out that "All through his Fables he has a simile for the follies of ambition, and his sympathies are with those who enjoy the world, not with those who conquer it (Claims, 11)." Another issue focused on by La Fontaine is the human interaction of business and finance, economics. With thousands of people interacting daily in the international market, there was plenty of material for La Fontaine to examine. The economy of 17th century France was an evolving one and to gain an edge on the competition, combatants would stoop to ruthless levels. The devious backstabbing was well concealed by a marketplace characterized by very personal, friendly interactions. Friendships made often proved to be alliances and as Sharon Kettering put it, "as one friend advanced he brought his allies with him (Patrons, 78)." These alliances were not always equal, however, and vertical connections were often distinguished by dependence, dominance, and exploitation. Kettering explains the allegiances common in the 17th century French economy in sayingLoyalties were expressed in terms of friendship, masking inequalities and conflict of interest. The lines between friendship and clientage were never clearly marked, and conveniently so, as the freedom to turn on allies allowed great profits to be realized at the unparalleled low price of friendship. (Patrons, 6)Power and influence were the leaders of the economy and independent institutions were manipulated and controlled by regional brokers. These brokers each acted in accordance with their patrons, usually Parisian government officials and policy makers. The French market was controlled by royalty and government officials and for that reason the rich tended to get richer and the poor poorer. Such tumultuous circumstances allowed La Fontaine to apply a vast number of Aesop's fables to the contemporary situation. A popular example of an Aesop fable used by La Fontaine in regards to economic dealings is "The Fisherman and the Little Fish," or "The Little Fish and the Fisherman," as La Fontaine renamed it. This tale recounts a fisherman's encounter with the single fish he pulls in with his nets at the end of his day's labor. Desperate to save its life, the little fish pleas with the fisherman to release him back into the water for he is only a tiny fish, not big enough to fill anyone's stomach. The fish promises that if he is released he will grow into a much larger fish and if the fisherman were to catch him then he would be able to sell him for a large sum. Quietly hearing the fish's last words the fisherman replies with the sharp response that he would be a fool to give up a sure gain in hopes of reaping a greater, uncertain profit. This particular fable, La Fontaine leaves unaltered, delivering the exact same message to the people of France as Aesop supplied to the Greeks nearly 000 years before. La Fontaine's version of the fable serves merely as friendly advice to those who which to excel in the world of finance. The direct, matter-of-fact delivery of the moral in the poem supports Edward Dowden's depiction of La Fontaine as a scholarly humanitarian when he saidHe (La Fontaine) does not impose new and great ideas on the reader; he does not interpret the deepest passions; he takes life as he sees it, as an entertaining comedy, touched at times with serious thought, with pathos, even with melancholy, but in the main a comedy, which teaches us to smile at the vanities, the follies, the egoisms of mankind, and teaches us at the same time something of tenderness and pity for all that is gentle or weak. (History, 14)The fact that La Fontaine duplicates Aesop's moral satisfies Dowden's claim that La Fontaine is not pushing radical philosophy on his audience, but rather restating a common and helpful idea in a short, funny poem. The aim of the poem supports Dowden's view of La Fontaine as a compassionate individual because the poem simply offers a friendly suggestion to those who may be worried about taking undue risks. La Fontaine's fable "The Woodcutter and Mercury," is also another that is taken straight from Aesop for face value. It is evident though that Aesop's version made quite sufficient commentary on economic affairs, La Fontaine merely provided them to his French-speaking people. This fable tells of a common woodcutter who loses his axe in a lake one day while felling wood. He beseeches Jupiter to return his means of livelihood and Jupiter sends his messenger Mercury to procure the tool. Mercury, however, tests the resolve of the meager workman and offers him an axe of gold as the one he lost. The man stays true though and denies the axe that is not his. The same transpires with an axe of silver until finally the man accepts the wooden axe that is truly his. As reward for his veracity he is given all three axes and the good graces of the gods. Word of this remarkable story spread quickly throughout the forests and soon enough countless numbers of missing axes were being pleaded for to Jupiter. Each man was offered the golden axe and greedily accepted it as his own, at which juncture they received a swift smack on the head and was left with no axe at all. The moral of each author's is most eloquently stated at the end of La Fontaine's fable; "Not to lie, to be satisfied with one's own possessions, is the surest practice nevertheless, people make use of false statements to get their hands on property. What's the good of this, Jupiter isn't taken in by it." Therefore not only does La Fontaine deliver the story as a means of promoting economic integrity but also to reinforce popular religious fervor, that worldly possessions do not transfer to heaven and men are judged by their actions, not their property. The full scope of La Fontaine's work, however, is not all plagiarisms. To recognize the originality and authenticity of his writings, it is necessary to examine the La Fontaine fable "The Bear and the Two Companions" and compare it to Aesop's fable, "Bear and the Two Travelers," on which it is loosely based. In the Aesop version of this fable, two men are traveling together when a bear intercepts their path. Immediately one of the men scurries up a tree and conceals himself in the branches, the other man, seeing no way of avoiding an encounter with the creature, drops to the ground and feigns death. The bear closely inspects the corpse and upon completing his examination the bear retreats into the woods. Invigorated by the traumatic experience, the man who climbed the tree excitedly inquires what the bear had whispered in the ear of the other man, who honestly replies, "Never travel with a friend who deserts you at the approach of danger (Aesop, 5)." Aesop provides the moral at the conclusion of the anecdote, "Misfortune tests the sincerity of friends (5)." La Fontaine's fable transpires as such Two companions who were short on money, sold to a furrier the skin of a bear they had not yet killed. After extensive bragging over the feat they were about to execute, for this was a mighty bear they intended to capture, the two men set to work finding the beast. Once found, the bear caused the two men a great panic and one man climbed up a tree while the other played dead to avoid being attacked. The bear closely checked the body of the man on the ground and concluding that it was unfit to eat left the two companions. Once it became safe, the man in the tree climbed down and asked his friend what the bear had said to him. The bear's advice to the man was "that one should never sell the skin of a bear one hasn't killed yet (67)." It is easy to see that, in this instance, La Fontaine utilized portions of Aesop's storyline but altogether abandoned the moral put forth in his fable. La Fontaine's fable puts forth an idea quite similar to the one presented in the fish fable, in business; the only good thing is a sure thing. Once again La Fontaine offers a simple guideline to economic interaction, not proven by numbers or theories, but proven by experience. Margaret Guiton comments on La Fontaine's ingenuity "His imagination was unfitted for large and sustained creation; it operated most happily in a narrow compass where his practical counsel could briefly intervene in the lives of readers and remind them of the simple things in life (Counterpoet, 81)." La Fontaine recognized the viciousness present in the world of wealth and riches, and rather than scorn from afar he simply uncovered moderate ethics to which even the fiercest capitalist could relate. The final aspect of human behavior and interaction that La Fontaine focused on was social conduct. This portion of writing mainly exhibits fables borrowed from Aesop for the value of their moral, not to make any specific commentary on 17th century France or Europe. David Lee Rubin comments on these fables saying, "La Fontaine simply used morals that already existed as groundwork for his imagination (Pact, )." The vast numbers of fables written by La Fontaine that do not relate to politics or economics, but rather provide strong moral values to remember and reflect upon, are where he truly shows his prowess as a fabulist and as an artist. Ranging from stories about love to basic etiquette in friendship, La Fontaine's fables take on a timeless quality and are the tales that earned him the fame that has followed him to today. One such fable relating to love is La Fontaine's "The Cat Transformed into a Woman." The Aesopic root of this poem though, reveals a moral unrelated to love itself. Aesop's version, "The Cat and Venus," tells of a cat that falls in love with a man and implores Venus to change her into a woman. Venus complies and, once a woman, the man falls in love with her immediately. Wishing to discover the true degree of metamorphosis undergone by the cat, Venus tempts the Cat with a mouse in the middle of their chamber floor. The Cat, forgetting her present shape, leaps from the couch and chases the mouse. A disappointed Venus then changes the Cat back into her original form and Aesop reveals the lesson to be extracted from the events, "Nature exceeds nurture." La Fontaine uses his fable to make an entirely different point, using nearly the same words. His report of the story begins with a young man falling in love with a cat. By divine intervention the cat becomes a woman and, as in Aesop's fable, the two live together as a normal loving couple. Then there appears a gathering of mice in a corner and twice the woman pursues them, revealing her true feline nature. While La Fontaine ultimately reveals the same lesson as Aesop, the action of his story leaves the reader with a much different feeling. To begin with, La Fontaine's story had the man falling in love with his animal, suggesting from the start that mankind can act very strangely under the unique conditions present when one is in love. Then La Fontaine spends a significant amount of time, about eight lines, describing the great love, joy, and happiness the cat brought the man. The absurdity of the poem is diminished as La Fontaine takes advantage of the reader's sentiment. Then the poem ends abruptly with the realization that the woman is still a cat in nature. La Fontaine's poem provides no resolution as in Aesop's fable when the Cat returned to its original form. By leaving the woman in her present state, La Fontaine triggers emotions of misery and pity for the young man whose lover and companion is revealed to be a cat. The quick role reversal made at the beginning of La Fontaine's fable gave it a much deeper social meaning and reminds his audience that it is impossible to change anyone who is old enough to be set is their ways, saying you can never get the better of nature, "Shut the door in its face and it'll come back in through the window (7)." Aesop's fable "The Miller, His Son and the Donkey" is a final example of a tale taken by La Fontaine to reestablish its moral in 17th century France as well as add on to its cultural commentary. Aesop's story follows the storyline of a miller and his son who plan on taking their donkey to the market in order to sell him. On their journey, which lasts several days, the trio comes across several groups of travelers who all have commentary or advice on how the three should go about arriving at their destination. The first group criticized the miller for walking along side the donkey when they could obviously ride. To appease these people the miller promptly puts his son on the back of the donkey and they continue riding. They then come across a group of elderly gentlemen who can be overheard commenting on the disrespect shown by the boy who sits idly on the donkey while his old father must walk. Immediately the boy and his father switch positions and continue on their way. Next, a group of women passes the convoy and remark with disgust at how the man forces his son to walk alongside him when his little legs can hardly keep pace with the beast. So the miller picks up his boy and they ride the rest of the way into town together. Just before entering the town they are accosted by a final advisor who is shocked that a man would load his own animal with such a heavy freight, for the two of them are probably better capable of carrying the donkey than it them. So, using a stick and some rope, the miller and his son string the donkey by his legs and carry him on their shoulders. Unaccustomed to such bizarre handling the donkey breaks free from the cords and ends up at the bottom of a hill in a river. Ashamed and upset, the miller realized that "by endeavoring to please everybody he had pleased nobody, and lost his Ass in the bargain." It is easy to see that La Fontaine was most likely attracted to this fable because of its comedic, "tongue-in-cheek," nature, but he also saw it as an opportunity to make a few points of his own. Preceding his translation of Aesop's fable, La Fontaine provided a short account in which he actually attributes the poem to its ancient Greek origin and sets the tale of "The Miller, His Son and the Donkey" within another short tale. La Fontaine describes a discussion between two prominent French poets of the early 17th century, Francois de Malherbe and Marquis de Racan, in which one describes to the other his distress in choosing a field to enter after his retirement that will not upset someone close to him. This brief discourse allows La Fontaine to insert key thoughts through the mouths of these two poets, which add another dimension to the meaning of the poem while simultaneously paying homage to two of his idols. The poem's meaning is enriched by such phrases as; "Everything in the world is a mixture of bitterness and attractiveness. War has its pleasures, marriage has its battles." These two lines of poetry serve to provide the poem with concrete examples for the reader to keep in mind as the storyline is entered. Then the reader can directly relate to the moral presented at the end of the fable, giving it more meaning and an enduring quality. La Fontaine's version of the fable also ends in a different manner than Aesop's. La Fontaine puts forth an idea similar to Aesop's, but his is phrased as such "As for you, follow Mars or Cupid or our ruler; go, come, run, stay in the provinces; take a wife, an abbey, a position or a governorship; people will discuss it, have not the slightest doubt about it." This ending provides the reader with a slightly different view of the moral Aesop put forth, no matter what course you take you will never please everyone. Aesop's phrasing of the moral indicates that in attempting to please everyone there is no route to success, but La Fontaine takes it a step further by showing that it is human nature to both want to please everyone, but also to gossip about the actions taken by everyone else. The fables of La Fontaine are not said by anyone to be completely original works of art. However, it is interesting to note that in borrowing ideas from all the writers before him, he produced a body of literature that is unparalleled in its breadth and depth. Using his own creativity and skill to recompose these works of art, he added to each one an extra touch of wisdom and timelessness which they were already so rich in. La Fontaine was able to say in twenty or so lines what other authors needed thousands to repeat. His works capture the attention and enjoyment of all his readers and do not hold them too tight as to crush them, but rather delicately let them go, imparting them with knowledge and perspicacity. BibliographyBailey, John C. The Claims of French Poetry. London Archibald Constable and Company LTD, 107. 107-144.Campbell, Peter R. Louis XIV, 1661-1715. London Longman, 1.Cole, Charles W. Colbert and a Century of French Mercantilism. New York Columbia UP, 1. 7-18.Crooks, Esther J. The Influence of Cervantes in France in the Seventeenth Century. Baltimore Johns Hopkins P, 11.Dowden, Edward D. A History of French Literature. New York D. Apple and Company, 188.Durant, Will. The Story of Civilization Part VIII The Age of Louis XIV. Vol. Viii. New York Simon and Schuster, 16. 1-16.Edelman, Nathan. Attitudes of Seventeenth-Century France toward the Middle Age. Morningside Heights King's Crown P, 146. 0-5.Events That Changed the World in the Seventeenth Century. Ed. John E. Findling, and Frank W. Thackeray. London Greenwood, 1. 77-5.Goubert, Pierre. Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen. New York Pantheon, 170.Guiton, Margaret. La Fontaine Poet and Counterpoet. New Brunswick Rutgers UP, 161. 6-88.Kettering, Sharon. Patrons, Brokers and Clients in Seventeenth Century France. New York Oxford UP, 186. 57-0.Mousnier, Roland. Peasant Uprisings in Seventeenth-Century France, Russia, and China. New York Harper & Row, 170.Musser, Frederic O. Strange Clamor A Guide to the Critical Reading of French Poetry. Detroit UP, 165.Sweetser, Marie-Odile. La Fontaine. Boston Twayne, 187.The 1600s Headlines in History. Comp. Louise I. Gerdes. San Diego Greenhaven, 001. 77-8. Please note that this sample paper on Jean de La Fontaine is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Jean de La Fontaine, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Jean de La Fontaine will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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